A  .JERJES  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  READE  ,i 
BOOR 

THE- SOUTH -AMERICAN 
REPUBLICS 


: 


II 


GIFT  OF 
J.E.    Rogers 


r\ 

J    V 


THE 

WORLD    AND    ITS    PEOPLE. 


BOOK  X. 


THE  WORLD  AND  ITS  PEOPLE. 


A  series  of  geographical  readers  that  describe  the  countries  and  the  inhab- 
itants of  all  parts  of  the  world ;  graded  to  suit  the  needs  of  young 
people  from  primary  to  high  school  age;  prepared  by  well-informed 
writers  who  combine  entertainment  with  instruction ;  and  filled  with 
a  wealth  of  maps  and  illustrations:  a  series  of  recognized  value  as  a 
preparation  for  the  regular  text-books,  and  a  supplement  to  them. 

Book          I.    FIRST  LESSONS.    36  cents. 
Book        II.     GLIMPSES  OP  THE  WORLD.    30  cents. 
Book      III.    OUR  OWN   COUNTRY.     By   Minna   C.    Smith.     50 
cents. 

Book  IV.  OUR  AMERICAN  NEIGHBORS.  By  Fannie  E. 
Coe.  00  cents. 

Book        V.     MODERN   EUROPE.     By  Fannie  E.  Coe.    GO  cents. 
Book      VI.    LIFE  IN  ASIA.    By  Mary  Gate  Smith.    00  cents. 

Book    VII.     VIEWS    IN    AFRICA.      By    Anna    B.    Badlam.      72 

cents. 
Book  VIII.     AUSTRALIA  AND   THE  ISLANDS  OF  THE  SEA. 

By  Eva  M.  C.  Kellogg-.    08  cents. 

Book  IX.  HAWAII  AND  ITS  PEOPLE.  By  Alexander  S. 
Twombly.  08  cents. 

Book  X.  THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS.  By  W. 
Fisher  Markwick  and  William  A.  Smith,  M.A. 
60  cents. 

The  prices  above  indicated  are  for  introduction. 


THE 

WORLD  AND  ITS   PEOPLE 

BOOK  X. 

THE 
SOUTH  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS 

BY 

W.  FISHER  MARKWICK,  D.D. 

IV 
MEMBER  OF  THE   BOARD   OF   EDUCATION,   ANSONIA,   CONN. 

AM) 

WILLIAM   A.    SMITH,  M.A. 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,   ANSONIA,  CONN. 


SILVER,   BURDETT   AND   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK     BOSTON      CHICAGO 


PRESERVATION 

COPY  ADDED 

ORIGINAL  TO  BS 

RETAINED  \oL(o 


rJAN2  1 


Q 

COPYRIGHT,  1901, 
BY  SILVEK,    BUEDETT  AND  COMPANY. 


PUBLISHERS'  ANNOUNCEMENT. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  readers  in  all  the  varied  lines  of  instruc- 
tion are  acknowledged  to  be  an  important  part  of  the  scho'ol 
equipment.  Through  them  the  pupil's  reading  is  made  to 
prepare  him  for  his  studies  and  to  contribute  directly  to 
their  enhanced  value  and  interest.  The  text-book  in  geog- 
raphy can  give  little  more  than  the  essential  outline ;  it 
cannot  go  into  the  details  of  the  everyday  life  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Cuba  or  of  New  Zealand  —  such  details  as 
make  people  and  places  real.  The  school  history  can  give 
scant  space  to  the  physical  aspect  of  a  country,  to  the 
surroundings  that  influence  a  nation's  development,  yet 
without  such  knowledge  the  study  lacks  its  true  basis.  In 
one  way  or  another  one  constantly  finds  need  of  knowing 
the  world  and  its  people. 

Under  this  title  of  "The  World  and  its  People"  the  pub- 
lishers are  offering  a  series  of  readers  intended  particularly 
to  supplement  the  geography,  and,  in  general,  to  contribute 
to  the  broadest  education  of  young  people.  Our  near  neigh- 
bors, our  antipodes,  and  the  peoples  that  live  between  these 
extremes  are  studied  in  turn,  so  that  the  series  as  a  whole 
gives  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  world  in  its  geographical 
aspect. 

The  commercial  and  industrial  side  of  each  country  — 
that  element  which  constitutes  so  large  a  part  of  the  live 

869048 


vi  PUBLISHERS'  ANNOUNCEMENT. 

interest  and  practical  value  of  geographical  study  —  has 
been  given  deserved  attention  throughout  the  series. 

The  series  has  been  carefully  developed  and  graded  from 
the  "First  Lessons,"  for  the  child  who  is  just  beginning 
to  read,  to  the  later  books,  which  are  not  too  elementary 
for  the  more  mature  high  school  student.  Not  only  in 
schools,  but  in  general  libraries,  in  the  favor  of  parents  as 
well  as  of  children,  these  books  are  making  a  notable  place 
for  themselves. 

The  first  eight  volumes  profited  by  the  editorial  super- 
vision of  the  late  Larkin  Dunton,  LL.D.,  head  master  of 
the  Boston  Normal  School,  who  was  preeminently  quali- 
fied for  the  task. 

The  several  volumes  are  prepared  by  writers  of  literary 
ability,  thoroughly  informed  on  their  subjects;  and  the 
effort  has  been  to  make  them  accurate,  instructive,  and 
always  interesting.  No  pains  have  been  spared  to  make 
the  illustrations  an  attractive  and  valuable  feature  of  each 
book.  By  reason  of  its  progressive  plan  and  judicious 
grading,  its  educative  qualities  and  its  appeal  to  the  inter- 
est, it  is  believed  that  this  series  is  proving  an  aid  to 
teachers  and  an  inspiration  to  pupils,  making  for  the 
enlarged  intelligence  and  culture  of  all  young  people  who 
read  these  volumes. 

SILVER,   BURDETT  AND  COMPANY. 


PREFACE. 

GREAT  care  is  taken  that  the  pupils  in  our  public 
schools  shall  be  well  grounded  in  all  that  pertains  to 
their  own  country,  yet  it  is  none  the  less  a  fact  that  a 
large  majority  of  those  pupils  know  almost  nothing  of 
the  sister  republics  which  lie  in  the  southern  half  of 
our  American  continent.  The  average  boy  or  girl  in 
these  United  States  knows  far  more  of  London,  Paris, 
or  Berlin  than  of  Buenos  Aires,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  or 
Valparaiso;  far  more  of  peoples  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rhine,  the  Volga,  and  the  Danube  than  of  those  who 
dwell  in  the  valleys  of  the  Amazon,  the  Orinoco,  and 
the  Rio  de  La  Plata ;  and  far  more  of  the  manners, 
customs,  superstitions,  and  modes  of  life  of  the  in- 
habitants of  India,  China,  and  Japan  than  of  those  of 
Argentina,  Colombia,  and  Brazil. 

This  ought  not  to  be ;  and  the  one  underlying  pur- 
pose of  this  volume  is  to  open  to  the  view  of  our  older 
boys  and  girls  the  charm  of  mystery  and  the  wealth  of 
life  hidden  away  in  the  depths  of  the  ten  interesting 
countries  which  lie  almost  at  our  doors,  and  whose 
several  governments  have  been  so  largely  modeled  and 
patterned  after  our  own. 

In  the  preparation  of  these  pages,  the  fullest  use, 
with  proper  recognition,  has  been  made  of  all  avail- 
able material  that  would  throw  a  clearer  light  upon 

vii 


viii  PREFACE. 

the  subject ;  and  especial  acknowledgment  is  due  to 
the  Bureau  of  American  Republics  in  Washington, 
D.C.,  whose  valuable  "Handbooks"  have  been  placed 
at  our  disposal  with  "the  fullest  permission  to  use 
them  for  the  laudable  end  in  view."  Much  of  the 
matter  in  the  several  historical  sketches  finds  its  source 
in  these  "  Handbooks,"  and  our  thanks  cannot  be  suf- 
ficiently expressed  to  the  Bureau  for  their  use.  We 
are  glad  to  acknowledge  also  the  interest  and  assist- 
ance of  the  official  representatives  in  this  country  of 
Venezuela,  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Bolivia,  Peru,  Brazil, 
Chile,  Uruguay,  Paraguay,  and  Argentina. 

If  this  book  shall  succeed  in  awakening  a  deeper 
interest  in  the  Republics  of  the  South,  we  shall  feel 
that  we  have  done  our  boys  and  girls  a  real  service, 
and  shall  be  more  than  satisfied. 

THE  AUTHORS. 

ANSONIA,  CONNECTICUT, 
June,  1901. 


CONTENTS. 


I.  THE  MAX  WHO  FOUND  AMERICA   . 

II.  DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION 

III.  GENERAL  FEATURES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

IV.  THE  FOUNDING  OF  THE  REPUBLICS 
V.  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  COLOMBIA 

VI.  COLOMBIA  AND  HER  PEOPLE  . 

VII.  IN  CITY  AND  COUNTRY    .... 

VIII.  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  VENEZUELA 

IX.  SOME  VENEZUELAN  CITIES 

X.  A  GLANCE  AT  THE  COUNTRY 

XL  LIFE  IN  VENEZUELA        .... 

XII.  INDUSTRIES  OF  VENEZUELA     . 

XIII.  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  ECUADOR  . 

XIV.  QUITO  AND  GUAYAQUIL  .... 
XV.  ECUADOR'S  NATURAL  BEAUTIES     . 

XVI.  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  PERU 

XVII.  THE  LAND  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER  . 

XVIII.  "TiiE  CITY  OF  THE  KINGS"  . 

XIX.  EASTERN  PERU 

XX.  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  BOLIVIA    . 

XXI.  THE  INLAND  REPUBLIC    .... 

XXII.  GOLD-MINING  IN  BOLIVIA 

XXIII.  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  BRAZIL     . 

XXIV.  THE  YOUNGEST  REPUBLIC 
XXV.  SOME  BRAZILIAN  CITIES 

ix 


1 

10 
16 
25 
31 
37 
44 
56 
63 
73 
81 


94 
101 
110 
117 
127 
137 
145 
154 
161 
169 
173 
181 
190 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXVI.     THE  AMAZON  VALLEY 200 

XXVII.  HERDSMEN  AND  HUNTERS         ....  213 
XXVIII.  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  THE  ARGENTINE  RE- 
PUBLIC     .        . 221 

XXIX.  A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  ARGENTINA  .        .        .  231 

XXX.  BUENOS^  AIRES  AND  LA  PLATA         .        .        .  239 

XXXI.  SOCIAL  AND  DOMESTIC  LIFE     ....  248 

XXXII.  THE  ARGENTINE  PROVINCES     .        .        .        .  255 

XXXIII.  THE  LEADING  INDUSTRIES        ....  265 

XXXIV.  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  PARAGUAY          .        .  272 
XXXV.     THE  LAND  OF  PLENTY 276 

XXXVI.  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  URUGUAY  .        .        .  286 

XXXVII.  THE  SMALLEST  REPUBLIC          ....  293 

XXXVIII.  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  CHILE          .         .         .301 

XXXIX.  AN  ENTERPRISING  REPUBLIC     ....  312 

XL.  FOREIGN  COLONIAL  POSSESSIONS      .        .        .  327 

VOCABULARY 335 

TRANSLATIONS 341 

INDEX  343 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

THE  CONVENT  OF  LA  RABIDA 2 

CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS 8 

COAT  OF  ARMS  OF  COLUMBUS 9 

THE  FLAGSHIP  OF  COLUMBUS 11 

AMERICUS  VESPUCIUS     ........  13 

IN  THE  STRAITS  OF  MAGELLAN     ......  16 

A  MOUNTAIN  CHAIN  IN  THE  ANDES 19 

ROYAL  PALMS  IN  THE  CARACAS  VALLEY,  VENEZUELA       .  23 

SIMON  BOLIVAR 29 

ANCIENT  SPANISH  MILESTONE 33 

THE  HOME  OF  SIMON  BOLIVAR 35 

NATIVES  CARRYING  CINCHONA  BARK    .        .        .        .        .39 

A  BIRD  CATCHER  AND  SELLER     ......  42 

A  FREIGHT  BOAT 47 

POTTERY  TRADERS  ON  THE  MAGDALENA  RIVER         .        .  51 

THE  FEATHERY  BAMBOO 54 

STATUE  OF  BOLIVAR 59 

THE  CAPITOL  AT  CARACAS 61 

UPPER  CARACAS 65 

MARKET  DAY  IN  CARACAS 67 

A  STREET  IN  VALENCIA 70 

THE  BROAD  ORINOCO 74 

Tin:  OVERSEER  OF  A  RANCH 76 

THE  JAGUAR 80 

A  RUDE  PLOW 82 

NATIVE  HUTS  IN  VENEZUELA 85 

DRYING  COFFEE 89 

THE  CACAO  BERRY 91 

COFFEE  WASHING 93 

xi 


xii  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

A  NATIVE  OF  ECUADOR 96 

THE  GOVERNMENT  HOUSE  AT  QUITO    .        .        .        .        .99 

A  WATER  CARRIER 104 

THE  RIVER  MARKET  AT  GUAYAQUIL 106 

A  STREET  IN  GUAYAQUIL 109 

THE  CONDOR HI 

CHIMBORAZO 113 

BANANAS  GROWING         . 116 

PIZARRO 119 

AN  INCA  BURIAL  TOWER 122 

THE  CATHEDRAL  AT  LIMA 125 

A  BRIDGE  IN  THE  MOUNTAINS 130 

LLAMAS     .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .132 

AREQUIPA 135 

A  GUANO  ISLAND    .        . 136 

LIMA  ON  A  HOLIDAY 138 

A  BREAD  SELLER    .........  140 

A  MILKWOMAN 141 

PERUVIAN  BOYS  AT  PLAY 143 

INDIAN  RUBBER  GATHERERS 146 

RUINS  OF  AN  INCA  PALACE  ON  LAKE  TITICACA          .        .  149 

A  PEON'S  CABIN,  WITH  BOYS  IN  THE  STOCKS     .        .        .  151 

IMPLEMENTS  MADE  BY  THE  INCAS 156 

ON  THE  ROAD  TO  LA  PAZ 159 

GALERA  TUNNEL 163 

A  BALSA  ON  LAKE  TITICACA 164 

THRESHERS 166 

A  VICUNA 167 

A  COPPER-MINING  TOWN 172 

THE  EMPEROR'S  PALACE  AT  PETROPOLIS     ....  176 

DOM  PEDRO  II 180 

TREE  FERNS .        .        .183 

THE  COFFEE  TREE 186 

A  CART  ON  A  SUGAR  PLANTATION 189 

A  SQUARE  IN  Rio  DE  JANEIRO     ......  191 

THE  HARBOR  OF  Rio  DE  JANEIRO 193 

«RIPE  BANANAS" 195 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  xiii 

PAGE 

READY  FOR  CHURCH 198 

A  STREET  IN  PARA         .         .        .      "  .        .        .         .        .201 

AN  INDIAN  CHIEF 205 

AN  ALLIGATOR 207 

TAPPING  A  RUBBER  TREE 209 

GAUCHOS  AND  THEIR  HOME 214 

A  PUMA .217 

AN  IGUANA 218 

AN  ARMADILLO        .        .        .    » 220 

STATUE  OF  GENERAL  SAN  MARTIN 223 

USPALLATA  PASS 226 

A  BUSINESS  STREET  IN  BUENOS  AIRES        ....  230 

PATAGONIANS 233 

THE  RAILROAD  OVER  THE  ANDES 235 

A  GAUCHO  AND  HIS  HORSES 237 

THE  OLD  WAY  OF  UNLOADING  VESSELS      ....  239 

THE  MILKMAN'S  MORNING  CALL 243 

THH  MUNICIPAL  BUILDING  AT  LA  PLATA   ....  246 

CROSSING  THE  TRACKLESS  PAMPAS 248 

THE  PATIO 251 

COMING  FROM  MARKET 254 

THE  ROCKING  STONE 257 

A  HOME  ON  THE  ARGENTINE  PLAINS 261 

EN  ROUTE  OVER  THE  ANDES 263 

DRYING  HIDES 266 

BRANDING  CATTLE 269 

THE  MATE  AND  THE  BOMKILLA 271 

THE  NATIONAL  PALACE  AT  ASUNCION         ....  275 

THE  IMPENETRABLE  TROPICAL  FOREST        ....  279 

A  RANCH  ON  THE  PLAINS 284 

THE  GOVERNMENT  HOUSE  IN  MONTEVIDEO         .        .        .  289 

A  VIEW  OF  MONTEVIDEO 295 

THE  BAKER  DELIVERING  BREAD 298 

ARAUCANIAN  INDIANS 302 

ARAUCANIAN  WOMEN 304 

THE  CAPITOL  AT  SANTIAGO 307 

THE  HARBOR  OF  VALPARAISO       .  311 


XIV  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

A  NITRATE  BED  AFTER  EXPLOSIONS 314 

NITRATE  READY  FOR  SHIPMENT    .        .        .        .        .        .  316 

A  STREET  CAR .         .         .  321 

THE  RAILROAD  STATION  AT  SANTIAGO        .        .        .        .  323 

PUNTA  ARENAS 326 

CABBAGE  PALMS  ON  THE  ISLAND  OF  TRINIDAD  .        .  333 


MAPS. 

POLITICAL  MAP  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA     .         .         .        Frontispiece 

TOSCANELLI'S  MAP 6 

THE  LINE  OF  DEMARCATION          ......       14 

PHYSICAL  MAP  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  21 


THE    SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


CHAPTER  I .... 

<.  >      »  «        >,•  °  o^ 

THE   MAN    WHO   FOUND   AMERICA. 

LATE  in  the  afternoon  of  an  autumn  day  in  the 
year  1491,  a  tall,  fine-looking  man,  leading  by  the 
hand  a  little  boy  of  ten  or  eleven  years  of  age,  knocked 
at  the  door  of  the  monastery  of  La  Rabida,  and  begged 
that  a  piece  of  bread  and  a  cup  of  water  might  be  given 
to  the  child.  This  convent,  which  is  still  standing,  is 
situated  within  sight  of  the  little  seaport  town  of  Palos, 
on  the  southern  coast  of  Spain.  The  man  was  Christo- 
pher Columbus,  who  afterward  became  the  discoverer 
of  the  American  continent,  and  the  boy  was  his  son 
Diego.  While  he  was  in  conversation  with  the  porter 
at  the  gate,  the  prior  of  the  monastery,  Juan  Perez, 
happened  to  notice  him,  and,  struck  by  the  fine  appear- 
ance of  the  man,  invited  him  into  the  monastery  for 
rest  and  refreshment. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  his  appearance  should  have 
attracted  attention,  for  in  one  of  the  best  descriptions 
we  now  have  of  him  it  is  said :  "  He  bore  the  signs  of 
descent  from  a  Teutonic  stock,  being  light-haired  and 
fair.  He  was  tall  and  large  of  limb.  His  face  was 
long,  with  an  aquiline  nose ;  the  cheeks  rather  full, 

1 


2  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

4  neither  large  nor  lean '  ;  he  had  a  very  clear  and 
ruddy  complexion,  and  eyes  of  a  bluish  gray." 

While  partaking  of  refreshment  in  the  monastery, 
Columbus  frankly  related  the  story  of  his  life  to  the 
good  monk,  who  became  greatly  interested  both  in  his 
past  struggles  and  in  his  plans  for  the  future ;  his 
story,  as  it  has  come  down  to  us,  being  as  follows  :  — 

He  was  bcrn  in  the  Italian  city  of  Genoa,  about  the 
close  of  the  year  1446,  though  the  exact  date  of  his 


THE  CONVENT  OF   LA   RABIDA. 


birth  cannot  now  be  discovered.  His  father  was  a 
wool- comber,  whose  business  it  was  to  take  the  tan- 
gled wool  as  it  came  from  the  backs  of  sheep,  and  comb 
it  out  straight  and  smooth,  ready  to  be  spun  into 
thread  and  woven  into  cloth.  Though  some  writers 
tell  us  that  the  boy  Christopher  spent  his  early  life  in 


THE   MAN   WHO    FOUND   AMERICA.  3 

learning  this  trade,  it  is  now  more  generally  believed 
that  he  went  to  sea  at  the  age  of  fourteen. 

Previous  to  this,  he  had  been  sent  to  a  school  where 
he  could  learn  something  of  geography,  of  the  drawing 
of  maps,  and  of  such  other  matters  as  would  fit  him 
to  take  command  of  a  vessel  later  in  life ;  for  he  had 
expressed  a  strong  desire  to  become  a  sailor  almost 
from  his  earliest  years. 

The  maps  which  Columbus  made  were  very  different 
from  those  which  are  in  use  in  the  schoolrooms  of  to- 
day. At  that  time  much  less  th.an  one-half  of  the  world 
had  been  discovered.  Europe,  a  part  of  Asia,  and  a 
small  portion  of  the  western  coast  of  Africa  were 
practically  all  the  countries  then  known,  and  the 
knowledge  of  the  two  latter  continents  was  very  lim- 
ited. The  great  majority  of  the  teachers  of  that  day 
believed  that  the  earth  was  a  flat  surface,  and  would 
not  accept  the  statement  that  it  was  shaped  like  a 
ball.  This  new  theory  was,  however,  accepted  by 
Columbus,  though  he  believed  the  world  to  be  much 
smaller  than  it  really  is,  and  this  led  him  into  a  series 
of  very  curious  blunders. 

Many  influences  in  the  world  around  him  attracted 
this  lad  to  a  seafaring  life.  During  his  school  days 
he  read  a  remarkable  book  written  by  Marco  Polo, 
also  an  Italian  and  a  native  of  Venice.  This  man 
made  an  overland  journey  to  the  far  East  more  than  a 
century  before  Columbus  was  born,  and  in  the  book 
referred  to,  he  recounted  the  discoveries  and  adven- 
tures of  the  thirty  years  which  he  had  spent  in  those 
distant  lands.  He  gave  such  glowing  descriptions  of 
the  wonders  of  India  and  China  that  the  interest  of  all 


4  THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Europe  was  awakened.  So  deeply  was  Columbus  im- 
pressed with  what  he  read,  that  he  set  himself  to  the  task 
of  making  a  map  of  the  world,  based  chiefly  on  Polo's 
discoveries ;  and  the  desire  to  visit  the  lands  to  which 
his  attention  was  thus  called  burned  within  him  as  a 
fire  that  would  not  be  quenched. 

Then,  again,  his  native  city  of  Genoa  was  a  busy 
seaport  town.  Many  of  its  inhabitants  were  sailors, 
and  large  numbers  of  vessels  were  constantly  arriving 
and  departing  at  its  docks.  Genoa  and  Venice  were 
the  chief  shipping  ports  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  at 
that  time,  and  were  the  great  centers  of  trade  with 
India  and  such  other  parts  of  Asia  as  were  then  known. 
There  was  a  great  deal  going  on  in  his  native  town  to 
awaken  a  strong  desire  in  the  mind  of  an  imaginative 
lad  to  see  for  himself  the  far-away  countries  of  which 
such  strange  stories  were  constantly  told  by  the  sailors 
who  came  into  port. 

We  also  learn  that  several  relatives  of  Columbus 
led  a  seafaring  life.  One  or  two  of  them  belonged  to 
that  class  of  adventurers  who  were  servants  of  any 
state  that  would  give  them  a  roving  commission  to 
fight  against  its  enemies ;  or,  if  a  commission  were 
wanting,  they  sought  and  found  a  foe  in  any  ship  carry- 
ing a  cargo  worth  taking.  They  did  not  differ  much 
from  the  men  who,  in  later  times,  were  called  pirates ; 
but  in  their  own  age  they  had  the  reputation  which 
privateers  have  had  in  ours. 

It  was  with  such  sea  rovers  that  the  great  captain 
learned  the  practice  of  navigation ;  learned  how  to  carry 
himself  in  fight  when,  sword  in  hand,  he  sprang  over 
the  bulwarks  of  a  hostile  vessel;  learned  how  to  con- 


THE    MAN    WHO    FOUND   AMERICA.  5 

trol  the  rough  and  lawless  men  with  whom  he  sailed, 
sometimes  by  the  enforcement  of  an  iron  discipline,  and 
at  other  times  by  those  arts  of  persuasion  of  which,  with 
his  winning  speech  and  commanding  presence,  he  was 
a  master. 

He  made  numerous  voyages  with  these  privateers, 
and  is  said  to  have  gone,  on  one  occasion,  as  far  north 
as  Iceland;  but  the  outline  of  his  career  as  a  young 
man  is  by  no  means  clear.  We  do  know,  however,  that 
at  thirty  years  of  age  he  was  living  at  Lisbon,  in  Portu- 
gal, where  he  married  a  daughter  of  a  renowned  navi- 
gator, late  governor  of  Porto  Santo,  one  of  the  Madeira 
Islands.  The  charts  and  journals  of  his  wife's  father 
thus  came  into  the  possession  of  Columbus.  After- 
ward, when  he  went  to  Porto  Santo  with  his  wife,  he 
was  brought  into  familiar  intercourse  with  Pedro  Cor- 
reo,  a  navigator  of  some  distinction,  who  had  married 
an  older  sister  of  his  wife.  This  family  connection 
was  both  an  incentive  and  a  help  to  his  studies;  and  it 
was  at  this  period  of  his  life  that  he  became  persuaded 
of  the  possibility  of  discovering  a  western  passage  to 
India. 

You  may  wonder  why  he  should  have  been  so  anxious 
to  find  a  way  to  India  and  the  East  by  sea.  The 
geographies  we  now  possess  give  us  abundant  informa- 
tion about  Asia.  On  our  maps  every  important  river, 
mountain  range,  and  cape  can  be  traced ;  we  know  the 
cities  and  provinces  and  separate  nations ;  and  we  have 
books  which  tell  us  of  the  people,  their  modes  of  life, 
and  their  products  and  manufactures.  It  was  not  so 
in  the  time  of  Columbus.  Asia  was  a  vast,  unknown 
land,  at  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  which  lay  the 


6  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

countries  which  we  now  know  as  China,  Japan,  and 
the  East  Indies,  and  beyond  them  flowed  the  ocean. 
From  these  countries  came  caravans  bringing  silk, 
pearls,  precious  stones,  gold,  silver,  and  spices.  Genoa 


saw  this  map  before  he 
tailed.  It  explain*  the  general 

idea  of  the  size  of  the  World  at  that 
time  and  how  he  expected  to  find 
India  where  he  found  America. 


A   MAP  THAT   COLUMBUS  STUDIED. 


and  other  Italian  cities  grew  rich  through  commerce, 
for  their  merchants  sent  ships  to  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean  to  trade  with  the  Asiatics,  who  had 
brought  their  treasures  across  the  continent. 

While  Columbus  was  still  a  boy,  the  Turks,  who 
had  been  living  in  Western  Asia,  swarmed  into  Europe 
and  captured  the  great  city  of  Constantinople.  They 
soon  controlled  all  the  eastern  part  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  it  became  a  perilous  matter  to  send  ships 
there.  Thus  it  was  of  the  greatest  importance  to  find, 
•if  possible,  some  new  route  to  the  Indies. 

The  Portuguese,  under  the  lead  of  their  prince, 
Henry  the  Navigator,  had  been  slowly  following  the 


THE    MAN   WHO    FOUND   AMERICA.  7 

coast  of  Africa,  and  had  succeeded  in  reaching  what  is 
now  known  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  at  its  southern 
limit;  but  it  was  a  long  and  toilsome  journey,  and 
India  and  China  were  still  far  away. 

Columbus  believed  that  by  sailing  due  west,  he  could 
reach  India  by  a  much  shorter  route.  He  made  a  map 
of  this  proposed  route,  talked  about  his  plans,  and 
declared  that  it  was  comparatively  easy  to  put  them 
into  effect.  But  he  was  a  poor  man,  and  it  was  neces- 
sary for  him  to  persuade  some  one  who  had  money  to 
join  him. 

For  nearly  twenty  years  he  carried  his  great  purpose 
in  his  mind  before  he  could  bring  it  to  pass.  He  tried 
in  vain  to  interest  the  magistrates  of  Genoa  in  the 
undertaking.  He  then  laid  his  plans  before  the  king 
of  Portugal,  who  called  a  council  of  his  learned  men  to 
inquire  into  their  merits.  These  men  publicly  ridi- 
culed Columbus  as  a  crazy  adventurer;  but  privately 
they  told  the  king  that  there  might  be  some  truth  in 
what  Columbus  said,  and  the  king  was  base  enough  to 
send  out  a  vessel  secretly,  in  order  to  get  all  the  advan- 
tage there  might  be  for  himself.  The  captain  of  this 
vessel  put  out  from  the  Azores,  but,  meeting  a  storm, 
became  frightened  and  turned  back.  Columbus  heard 
of  this  underhand  proceeding  and  indignantly  left 
Portugal. 

Columbus  next  bent  his  energies  toward  persuading 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  king  and  queen  of  Spain,  to 
give  him  aid;  and,  failing  in  that,  he  tried  to  bring 
some  of  the  noble  families  to  his  side.  Through  his 
brother  Bartholomew,  he  made  an  equally  vain  attempt 
to  interest  the  English  court. 


8  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Several  years  were  thus  consumed.  Thoroughly  dis- 
appointed, reduced  to  poverty,  ridiculed  as  a  lunatic, 
and  almost  without  a  friend,  Columbus  set  out  with 


CHRISTOPHER    COLUMBUS. 
As  he  appeared  before  Queen  Isabella. 


his  boy  for  Huelva,  in  Spain.  He  intended  to  leave 
Diego  with  a  brother  of  his  wife,  who  was  now  dead, 
and  then  to  press  on  to  England,  in  the  hope  that  he 
might  there  obtain  the  assistance  which  both  Portugal 
and  Spain  had  refused  him.  It  was  as  he  neared 


THE   MAN   WHO    FOUND   AMERICA. 


9 


the  town  of  Huelva  that  he  paused  to  ask  refreshment 
at  the  monastery  of  La  Rabida,  and  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Juan  Perez,  who  had  once  filled  the  high 
position  of  father  confessor  to  Queen  Isabella. 

Perez  became  greatly  interested  and  sent  to  Palos 
for  two  men  of  importance.  One  was  a  physician  who 
was  very  much  interested  in  geographical  matters ;  the 
other  was  a  ship-owner  and  captain,  Martin  Pinzon. 
So  deeply  did  Columbus  impress  them  that  the  prior 
set  off  to  see  Isabella  at  the  camp  of  the  Spanish  armies, 
—  for  Spain  was  then  waging  war  with  the  Moors,  who 
had  long  before  come  over  into  the  Spanish  peninsula 
from  Africa.  He  persuaded  the  queen  to  send  money 
to  Columbus,  and  invite 
him  to  appear  before  her. 

Columbus  visited  the 
queen  without  delay,  and 
she  and  her  counselors  were 
so  impressed  by  his  argu- 
ments that  she  promised  to 
take  up  the  matter  in  earnest 
just  as  soon  as  the  Moors 
had  been  conquered.  He 
then  returned  to  the  monas- 
tery to  await  the  progress 
of  events ;  and  on  the  second 
day  of  January,  1492,  the 
Moors  having  surrendered 
Granada,  he  was  again  sum- 
moned to  the  court. 

He,  however,  made  such  large  demands  of  power  and 
honor  for   himself   that   the   king   and  queen  refused 


COAT  OF   ARMS    OF  COLUMBUS. 

The  royal  lion  and  castle,  for  Arragon 
and  Castile,  are  quartered  with  the 
ti  vr  anchors  and  gold  islands  in  azure 
waves. 


10  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

his  request;  and,  once  more  baffled,  he  mounted  his 
mule  and  set  off  for  France.  But  the  friends  of  Colum- 
bus who  had  influence  at  court,  could  not  bear  that 
Spain  should  lose  the  glory  so  nearly  in  her  grasp. 
They  redoubled  their  appeals  to  the  queen,  and  she, 
moved  by  their  zeal,  sent  a  messenger  after  Columbus. 
She  declared  that  she  would  herself  bear  a  large  part  of 
the  expense ;  and  a  satisfactory  agreement  was  at  length 
concluded. 


CHAPTER  II. 

DISCOVERY   AND   EXPLORATION. 

IMMEDIATELY  upon  the  close  of  his  interview  with 
the  king  and  queen,  Columbus  returned  to  the  monas- 
tery and  discussed  the  whole  matter  with  his  friends. 
One  of  the  conditions  in  the  agreement  required  that 
he  should  bear  one-eighth  of  the  entire  cost  of  the 
undertaking.  This  money  was  at  once  loaned  him  by 
the  Pinzon  brothers,  and  the  chief  difficulty  was  thus 
disposed  of. 

These  men  were  of  the  greatest  service  in  other 
matters  also.  It  was  very  difficult  to  find  sailors  ready 
to  venture  out  upon  the  "Sea  of  Darkness,"  as  they 
called  the  unknown  Atlantic;  and  the  Pirizons,  by  tak- 
ing command  of  two  of  the  three  vessels  of  the  fleet, 
gave  courage  to  their  townsmen.  Their  ships  were 
named  the  Pinta  and  the  Nina.  The  Santa  Maria, 
the  largest  of  the  three,  was  commanded  by  the  admiral, 
as  Columbus  was  now  called.  It  was  about  sixty-three 


DISCOVERY  AND    EXPLORATION. 


11 


feet  long,  twenty  feet  broad  at  the  widest  part,  and  ten 
feet  deep ;  indeed,  no  one  of  the  three  was  larger  than 
a  small  coasting  schooner.  Ninety  sailors  and  thirty 
gentlemen  and  priests  made  up  the  whole  expedi- 
tion, and  they  carried  provisions  for  a  year.  The  boy 
Diego  was  left  at  the  monastery. 

After    extended    preparations  ---_-— 

this  little  fleet  sailed  from  the      ~_-r"~ 
port  of  Palos  on  August  3,  1492. 
At    the    Canary    Islands,    then 
the  most  westerly  land  known 
to   Europeans,    they   made    cer- 
tain necessary  repairs  to  their 
ships  and  sails,  and  then 
started   on    their    long 
journey  to  the  west- 
ward.     After    much 
trouble    and     disap- 
pointment,     they 
landed  on  an  island 
to   which    Columbus 
gave  the  name  of  San 
Salvador,      or    Holy 
Redeemer. 

After  raising  the  Spanish  flag  and  taking  possession 
of  the  island  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
Columbus  continued  his  voyage  and  discovered  Cuba 
and  Haiti.  This  latter  island  he  named  Hispaniola, 
or  "Little  Spain."  Still  believing  himself  to  be  near 
the  coast  of  Asia,  he  gave  to  the  islands  the  general 
name  of  the  West  Indies,  and  the  natives  he  called 
Indians.  The  Santa  Maria  was  wrecked,  and  the  crew 


THE   FLAGSHIP  OF  COLUMBUS. 


12  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

of  the  Nina  deserted  and  went  on  an  independent 
voyage  of  their  own  ;  and  Columbus,  leaving  about 
forty  men  on  the  island  of  Haiti,  returned  in  the  Pinta 
to  Spain,  where  he  was  received  with  honors  of  the 
highest  order,  and  took  his  place  among  the  great 
heroes  of  the  age. 

Columbus  made  three  other  voyages  across  the  broad 
Atlantic ;  and  it  was  on  the  completion  of  his  third  voy- 
age to  the  westward  that  he  entered  the  mouth  of  the 
Orinoco  River  and  set  foot  upon  the  mainland  of  the 
American  continent.  He  never  found  out  his  mistake, 
never  realized  that  he  had  discovered  a  new  world,  but 
died  firmly  believing  that  he  had  solved  the  problem  of 
a  short  and  easy  way  to  Asia. 

As  soon  as  it  became  known  that  he  had  succeeded  in 
crossing  the  Atlantic,  others  were  quick  to  follow. 
John  Cabot  crossed  over  in  1497,  landed  at  Cape 
Breton,  and  explored  the  coast  of  North  America  for 
some  distance  southward.  As  he  was  employed  by  the 
English  government  and  sailed  under  the  English 
flag,  this  voyage  was  not  without  influence  upon  the 
settlement  and  history  of  the  United  States,  for  it  gave 
England  a  valid  claim  to  North  America.  Sometime 
between  the  years  1500  and  1502  two  Portuguese  navi- 
gators, named  Cortereal,  went  over  much  the  same 
ground  as  John  Cabot. 

For  the  time  being,  however,  these  voyages  were 
fruitless.  It  was  not  a  new  world,  but  China  and 
Japan,  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  the  Spice  Islands,  that 
Europe  was  seeking.  When  Vasco  da  Gama  succeeded 
in  reaching  India  by  sailing  around  the  coast  of  Africa, 
and  returned  to  Portugal  with  his  ship  loaded  down 


DISCOVERY   AND    EXPLORATION. 


13 


with  Eastern  silks  and  spices,  it  was  felt  that  his  dis- 
covery was  of  far  greater  importance  than  that  of  Colum- 
bus, and  much  of  the 
interest  in  travel  to  the 
westward  died  away. 

Two  years  after  the 
Cabot  voyage,  an  Italian 
by  the  name  of  Amerigo 
Vespucci,  who  was  then 
living  in  Spain,  started 
on  a  voyage  of  explora- 
tion, using  the  charts  of 
Columbus  as  his  guide. 
He  is  better  known  by 
his  Latin  name,  Ameri- 
cus  Vespucius.  In  due 
time  he  reached  the 
northeastern  coast  of 
South  America,  at  a 
point  which  could  not 
have  been  far  from  what 
is  now  Dutch  Guiana. 
This  man  made  three 
voyages  in  all  and  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  Bra- 
zil. When  he  returned 
home,  in  1504,  he  wrote  an  account  of  his  travels, 
which  was  published  in  a  small  pamphlet  and  was 
widely  read. 

A  treaty  had  been  made  between  Spain  and  Portugal 
in  regard  to  the  division  of  such  lands  as  might  be  dis- 
covered. In  this  treaty  it  was  agreed  that  a  meridian, 


AMERICUS   VESPUCIUS. 


14 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


to  be  known  as  "  the  line  of  demarcation,"  should  be 
drawn  three  hundred  and  seventy  leagues  west  of  the 
Cape  Verde  Islands.  All  heathen  lands  discovered,  no 
matter  by  whom,  to  the  east  of  this  line  were  to  belong 
to  Portugal;  all  to  the  west  of  it  were  to  be  the 
property  of  Spain. 


THE    LINE   OF   DEMARCATION. 


As  Vespucius  had  explored  the  coast  of  South 
America  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  La  Plata  River, 
several  important  matters  were  settled  by  his  voyages. 
In  the  first  place,  Brazil  was  secured  to  Portugal,  and 
the  great  body  of  the  continent  to  Spain.  In  the  second 
place,  the  geographical  ideas  of  the  time  were  changed. 
The  great  length  of  coast  line  explored  proved  that  the 
land  was  not  a  mere  island,  but  that  Vespucius  had 
found  a  new  continent  in  the  Western  hemisphere. 
This  was,  for  a  time,  called  the  "  fourth  part "  of  the 


DISCOVERY   AND   EXPLORATION.  15 

world  —  the  other  three  parts  being  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa. 

A  copy  of  the  pamphlet  published  by  Vespucius  fell 
into  the  hands  of  a  German  professor,  who  became 
greatly  interested  in  its  story.  In  the  year  1507,  this 
professor  published  a  little  book  in  Latin,  which  he 
called  "An  Introduction  to  Geography."  That  book 
contains  the  following  sentence,  "The  fourth  part  of 
the  world  having  been  discovered  by  Amerigo  or  Ameri- 
cus,  we  may  call  it  Amerig6  or  America."  This  name, 
which  at  first  appeared  only  on  maps  of  Brazil,  was 
applied  later  to  the  whole  of  South  America,  and 
eventually  to  the  entire  American  continent. 

The  only  other  voyage  to  which  we  need  call  atten- 
tion is  that  of  a  Portuguese  sailor  named  Magellan, 
who,  in  1519,  led  a  Spanish  fleet  across  the  Atlantic. 
He  coasted  along  South  America  to  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
entered  the  strait  which  now  bears  his  name,  passed 
well  up  the  western  coast,  and,  turning  westward, 
sailed  toward  India.  He  was  then  on  the  great  ocean 
which  Balboa  had  discovered  a  few  years  earlier,  lying 
to  the  south  and  west  of  America,  to  which  he  had 
given  the  name  of  the  South  Sea.  Magellan  found  it 
so  much  smoother  than  the  Atlantic  that  he  called  it 
the  Pacific  Ocean. 

This  was  the  greatest  of  all  the  voyages  of  the  period, 
and  it  was  also  the  most  costly.  Five  ships,  carrying 
two  hundred  and  fifty  men,  left  Spain ;  and  only  one 
ship  and  fifteen  men  returned.  Magellan  himself  was 
killed  by  the  natives  on  one  of  those  Philippine  Islands 
which  have  recently  come  into  the  possession  of  the 
United  States.  But  the  one  ship  which  did  return  had 


16 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


IN   THE    STRAITS    OF    MAGELLAN. 


actually  sailed  around  the  world,  for  it  returned  to 
Spain  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Africa.  Thus  it  was  proved  beyond  ques- 
tion that  the  earth  was  round,  and  also  that  America 
was  a  great  and  separate  continent,  and  not  a  part  of 
Asia,  as  had  been  almost  universally  supposed. 


CHAPTER  III. 
GENERAL  FEATURES  OF  SOUTH   AMERICA. 

SOUTH  AMERICA  occupies  the  southern  half  of  the 
Western  continent  and  is  situated  mostly  within  the 
torrid  zone.  It  is  nearly  twice  the  size  of  the  United 
States,  and  its  general  appearance  is  that  of  a  triangle 
with  the  point  or  apex  extending  far  down  into  the 


GENERAL    FEATURES   OF   SOUTH    AMERICA.  17 

waters  of  the  South  Atlantic.  Notwithstanding  its 
immense  length  of  coast  line,  it  possesses  very  few  har- 
bors, and  some  of  these  are  scarcely  worthy  of  the  name. 

The  principal  mountain  range,  the  Andes,  extends 
along  the  western  coast  and  is  really  a  continuation  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  of  North  America.  The  two 
ranges  form  an  almost  unbroken  highland  from  the 
Bering  Sea  to  Cape  Horn.  Many  of  the  peaks  of  the 
Andes  reach  a  great  height.  They  follow  the  Pacific 
coast  more  closely  than  the  mountains  of  North  America 
and  do  not  spread  out  so  widely  to  the  east  and  west. 
The  mountain  sides  are  very  steep,  and  the  spaces  lying 
between  them  are  mostly  deep  and  narrow  ravines, 
rather  than  broad  and  open  valleys  suitable  for  cultiva- 
tion. Travel  in  these  mountain  regions  is  extremely 
difficult,  and  yet  there  are  many  more  cities  and  towns 
built  upon  the  sides  of  the  Andes  than  among  the 
Rockies. 

The  Andes  everywhere  exhibit  evidences  of  volcanic 
action.  Many  of  the  loftiest  peaks  are  extinct  volcanic 
cones,  and  there  are  at  present  forty  or  fifty  volcanoes 
in  active  operation.  Five  of  these  can  be  seen  from 
the  city  of  Quito  in  Ecuador;  Cotopaxi,  the  largest 
and  most  symmetrical  of  the  five,  being  considered 
the  fiercest  volcano  in  the  world. 

The  Andes  form  one  of  the  grandest  mountain  sys- 
tems in  the  world.  Following  the  western  coast  for  a 
considerable  distance  in  a  single  chain,  and  increasing 
in  height  and  grandeur  as  they  advance  northward,  they 
separate  into  two  parallel  ranges  about  midwa}'  in  their 
•  course,  inclosing  in  their  mighty  arms  the  extended 
plateau  of  Bolivia.  This  plateau  has  an  elevation  of 


18  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

about  two  and  one-half  miles  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  some  of  the  peaks  in  this  vicinity  rise  to  a  height 
of  over  four  miles.  North  of  this  plateau  the  mountains 
continue  in  two  ranges,  and  sometimes  in  three;  but 
as  they  near  the  equator,  they  gradually  merge  into  a 
single  chain.  North  of  the  equator  they  break  again 
into  three  distinct  ranges,  inclosing  deep  and  narrow 
valleys,  many  of  which  are  extremely  difficult  of  access. 

The  archipelago  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  —  meaning  the 
Land  of  Fire  —  lies  at  the  southern  extremity  of  South 
America  and  is  really  an  extension  of  the  Andes.  It 
is  about  the  size  of  Great  Britain  and  is  separated  from 
the  mainland  by  a  narrow  waterway  known  as  the 
Strait  of  Magellan. 

This  narrow  passage  is  much  used  by  seamen,  as  it 
affords  a  shorter  and  safer  way  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  than  the  voyage  around  Cape  Horn.  In  this 
passage  a  very  curious  ocean  post-office  existed  until 
recently.  It  consisted  of  a  little  box  firmly  fastened 
by  a  chain  to  a  prominent  headland  facing  Tierra  del 
Fuego.  This  box  was  opened  by  every  ship  passing 
through  the  strait  in  either  direction,  to  deposit  or  take 
out  letters,  and  each  ship  performed  its  part  by  the 
delivery  of  such  letters  as  were  addressed  to  places  on 
its  course.  It  speaks  well  for  these  followers  of  the 
sea,  that  not  a  single  instance  of  violated  confidence 
was  ever  reported. 

The  stormy  climate  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  makes  it 
one  of  the  most  dreary  and  inhospitable  regions  in 
the  world,  though  its  even  temperature  and  abundant 
moisture  are  particularly  favorable  to  certain  kinds  of. 
plant  life.  The  potato  and  the  beautiful  fuchsia  are 


20  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

native  here,  and  large  areas  are  well  covered  with  wood. 
There  are  few  land  animals,  insects,  or  birds ;  but  large 
shoals  of  fish  are  found  along  the  shores.  The  inhab- 
itants, who  are  among  the  most  degraded  of  the  human 
family,  live  mainly  by  fishing  and  hunting. 

South  America  is  as  famous  for  its  rivers  as  for  its 
mountains,  possessing  three  of  the  largest  streams  in 
the  world.  The  Amazon,  which  rises  in  the  foothills 
of  the  Andes,  not  more  than  sixty  miles  from  the 
Pacific,  flows  directly  across  the  continent  and  empties 
into  the  Atlantic  at  a  distance  of  nearly  four  thousand 
miles  from  its  source.  This  river  and  its  tributaries 
are  navigable  for  ocean  steamers  for  over  two  thousand 
miles,  and  smaller  vessels  can  sail  almost  to  the  moun- 
tains in  which  it  takes  its  rise.  Its  mouth  looks  like 
an  open  sea,  and  its  waters  pour  into  the  ocean  in  such 
an  immense  body  as  to  be  clearly  traceable  for  over  five 
hundred  miles. 

The  La  Plata  River,  with  its  two  great  tributaries, 
the  Parana  and  the  Paraguay,  is  a  stream  fully  equal 
to  the  Mississippi,  and  second  only  to  the  Amazon  in 
the  amount  of  water  it  carries  to  the  sea.  Its  mouth 
is  so  broad  that  in  sailing  directly  through  its  center 
neither  bank  is  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  This  river 
is  crowded  with  shipping,  especially  on  the  Parana 
branch,  which  is  navigable  for  steamers  for  more  than 
a  thousand  miles.  It  is  of  the  greatest  service  in 
transporting  the  products  of  the  interior  to  the  coast. 

The  Orinoco,  which  flows  through  Venezuela  and 
empties  into  the  Atlantic  at  the  point  where  Colum- 
bus first  sighted  the  mainland  of  the  American  conti- 
nent, is  over  a  mile  wide  at  its  mouth,  and  carries  to 


PHYSICAL   MAP    OF    SOUTH   AMERICA. 


22  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

the  ocean  a  quantity  of  water  only  surpassed  by  the 
Mississippi,  the  Amazon,  and  the  La  Plata. 

Only  one  lake  in  South  America  is  worthy  of  special 
mention.  This  is  Lake  Titicaca,  located  at  the  south- 
eastern extremity  of  Peru.  It  is  situated  high  up 
among  the  Andes,  about  twelve  thousand  feet  above 
sea  level,  and  is,  in  fact,  the  highest  lake  on  the 
American  continent.  It  is  about  half  the  size  of  Lake 
Ontario  and  bears  evidence  of  having  once  occupied  a 
much  larger  area.  Maracaibo,  in  Venezuela,  is  some- 
times spoken  of  as  a  lake,  but  it  is  really  an  arm  of 
the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  smaller  sheets  of  water,  dis- 
tributed over  all  parts  of  the  country,  are  not  of 
sufficient  importance  to  command  attention. 

South  America  is  also  famous  for  its  vast  plains. 
The  great  central  plain  covers  more  than  one-half  of 
the  entire  area  of  the  continent.  Other  extensive 
plains,  such  as  the  Brazilian  highlands,  the  Bolivian 
plateau,  and  the  Andean  highlands,  will  be  described 
as  we  proceed. 

These  plains  may  be  grouped  into  three  general 
divisions:  the  llanos,  the  selvas,  and  the  pampas. 

The  llanos  are  found  chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the 
Orinoco.  They  are  treeless,  with  the  exception  of 
the  palms  which  grow  along  the  banks  of  the  water- 
courses or  cluster  in  the  swampy  portions  of  the  delta. 
During  the  rainy  season  they  are  submerged,  and  this 
accounts  for  the  curious  fact  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
swampy  sections  build  their  houses  in  the  tree-tops. 
As  the  dry  season  advances,  everything  speedily  changes. 
Tropical  vegetation  in  a  great  variety  of  forms  springs 
up  as  if  by  magic,  for  growth  is  more  rapid  here  than 


GENERAL   FEATURES   OF   SOUTH   AMERICA. 


23 


in  any  other  part  of  the  earth.  The  life  of  this  vegeta- 
tion is,  however,  very  brief.  The  intense  heat  of  the 
sun  quickly  dries  up  the  smaller  streams,  leaving  only 
muddy  pools  filled  with  reptiles.  The  grass  withers, 
and  the  earth  is  parched  until  great  cracks  appear  upon 


ROYAL  PALMS  IN  THE  CARACAS  VALLEY,  VENEZUELA. 

its  surface.  The  horses  and  cattle  are  driven  to  the 
foothills  of  the  Andes  for  pasturage,  the  toads  and 
other  reptiles  bury  themselves  in  the  mud  to  await  the 
return  of  the  wet  season,  and  the  natives  burn  off  all 
the  dried  herbage  that  remains,  so  as  to  secure  better 
results  when  the  new  crop  shall  appear. 

The  selvas,  lying  chiefly  in  the  Amazon  region,  are 


24  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

covered  with  forests.  As  rain  is  much  more  frequent 
here,  everything  possesses  more  of  permanence.  The 
trees  are  so  lofty  and  their  foliage  so  dense  that 
the  forest  depths  are  always  dark  and  gloomy,  while 
the  undergrowth  is  so  thick  and  the  vines  so  luxuriant 
and  far  reaching  as  to  render  this  vast  region  almost 
impenetrable.  Thousands  of  acres  of  this  valuable 
land  have  probably  never  been  looked  upon  by  human 
eyes. 

The  pampas,  which  lie  along  the  valley  of  the  La 
Plata  River,  are  covered  with  coarse  grass  and  afford 
fine  pasturage  for  large  herds  of  horses,  cattle,  and 
sheep.  They  have  but  few  trees  and  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  to  the  great  prairies  of  our  own  land. 

South  America  has  an  even  and  agreeable  climate. 
It  is  nowhere  subject  to  such  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
as  are  experienced  in  North  America.  The  lowlands 
of  the  torrid  belt  are  always  hot,  those  of  the  extreme 
south  are  often  visited  by  stormy,  disagreeable  weather, 
and  those  of  the  central  portion  are  always  mildly  tem- 
perate. The  elevated  plateaus  of  the  Andes,  even  in 
the  torrid  zone,  have  such  a  delightful  climate  that  this 
section  is  called  the  "Paradise  of  South  America." 
Above  this  section  is  the  land  of  perpetual  snow  and 
cold,  which  is,  for  the  most  part,  uninhabited. 

The  natives  found  here  by  Columbus  were  Indians, 
and  at  that  time  there  were  probably  more  Indians  in 
South  America  than  in  North  America.  The  tribes 
having  the  highest  civilization  were  the  Incas,  in  the 
western  part.  The  Spaniards  and  the  Portuguese  made 
slaves  of  the  conquered  natives;  but  the  Indians  are 
now  free,  and  those  who  inhabit  the  cities  are  partly 


THE   FOUNDING   OF  THE   REPUBLICS.  25 

civilized  and  inoffensive,  while  those  of  the  interior 
are  still  fierce  and  warlike. 

The  whites  are  the  ruling  race,  although  they  com- 
prise less  than  one-third  of  the  population.  They  are 
descendants  of  the  early  Spanish  and  Portuguese  colo- 
nists. The  negroes,  who  constitute  about  one-tenth  of 
the  population,  are  descended  from  the  slaves  brought 
from  Africa  by  the  early  Portuguese  colonists.  They 
are  most  numerous  in  Brazil,  where  their  services  are 
much  needed  on  the  large  coffee,  sugar,  and  cotton 
plantations. 

Portuguese  is  the  official  language  among  the  whites 
of  Brazil;  but  elsewhere,  except  in  Guiana,  the  whites, 
being  chiefly  of  Spanish  descent,  speak  the  Spanish 
language. 

North  of  Brazil  and  east  of  Venezuela,  lie  the  three 
small  provinces  known  as  British  Guiana,  Dutch 
Guiana,  and  French  Guiana.  These,  as  their  names 
imply,  are  still  under  foreign  rule.  With  these  excep- 
tions, the  territory  of  South  America  is  now  divided 
into  the  ten  republics  of  Venezuela,  Colombia,  Ecua- 
dor, Brazil,  Peru,  Bolivia,  Paraguay,  Uruguay,  Ar- 
gentina, and  Chile. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
THE   FOUNDING  OF  THE   REPUBLICS. 

THE  South  American  republics  are  all  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin.  For  nearly  two  and  a  half  centu- 
ries after  the  country  came  into  the  possession  of  Spain 


26  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

and  Portugal,  the  whole  of  South  America,  with  the 
exception  of  Brazil,  was  governed  by  Spanish  viceroys 
residing  at  Lima,  in  Peru.  These  viceroys  were  invested 
with  royal  authority  and  served  as  substitutes  for  the 
absent  king. 

Courts  of  justice  were  established  in  the  several  prov- 
inces, and  their  presidents  exercised  full  authority  in 
their  own  territories,  but  were  subject  to  the  general 
government  in  Peru.  The  court  of  what  is  now  known 
as  Bolivia  sat  at  Charcas ;  that  of  Chile  at  Santiago ; 
that  of  Ecuador  at  Quito ;  that  of  Colombia  at  Bogota ; 
that  of  the  united  provinces  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata, 
which  included  Paraguay,  Uruguay,  and  the  Argentine 
Republic,  sat  sometimes  at  Asuncion,  but  chiefly  at 
Buenos  Aires.  .  While  Brazil  was  under  Spanish  domi- 
nation, from  1582  to  1640,  it  had  a  court  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro ;  but  when  the  authority  of  Portugal  was  re- 
stored, it  became  a  viceroyalty  governed  in  the  name 
of  the  Portuguese  king. 

The  policy  of  Spain  was  to  restrain,  rather  than  to 
promote,  the  development  of  her  colonies  in  America ; 
to  strip  them  of  everything  that  would  bring  profit  to 
the  crown,  and  to  enforce  a  monopoly  of  commerce  with 
the  mother  country.  All  industries  likely  to  compete 
with  Spanish  interests  were  prohibited ;  no  goods  could 
be  imported  except  from  Spain,  and  no  products  exported 
to  any  other  country.  The  natives  were  reduced  to 
slavery,  and  even  citizens  of  Spanish  birth  were  com- 
pelled to  pay  heavy  tribute  to  the  crown  and  to  the 
Church. 

As  the  population  increased,  it  was  found  that  this 
form  of  government  was  unsuitable,  and  the  exclusive 


THE    FOUNDING   OF  THE   REPUBLICS.  27 

policy  pursued  by  Spain  became  a  source  of  great  dis- 
content. To  meet  these  new  conditions,  a  decided 
change  was  made  in  1740,  when  the  southern  portion  of 
the  continent  was  divided  and  placed  under  the  charge 
of  two  viceroys.  In  the  same  year  a  third  viceroy  was 
established  at  Bogota,  to  govern  the  northern  provinces 
of  Ecuador,  Colombia,  and  Venezuela;  and  six  years 
later  a  fourth  viceroy  was  stationed  at  Buenos  Aires,  to 
assist  in  the  government  of  the  southern  provinces. 

Throughout  all  these  years  there  were  frequent  spas- 
modic attempts  at  resistance  to  Spanish  tyranny;  but 
they  were  chiefly  directed  against  unpopular  local  rulers 
or  oppressive  edicts,  rather  than  against  the  Spanish 
government  as  a  whole. 

In  the  year  1756  a  child  was  born  at  Caracas,  in  Vene- 
zuela, who  was  destined  to  become  the  leader  of  South 
American  independence.  His  name  was  Francisco  Mi- 
randa, and  he  had  a  most  remarkable  career.  His  family 
was  of  Spanish  origin,  prominent  among  the  colonial 
nobility,  and  possessed  large  estates  and  great  wealth. 
Like  other  young  men  of  his  class,  Miranda  was  sent 
to  Europe  to  complete  his  education.  In  Paris  he 
met  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  who  had  already  been 
engaged  in  the  war  of  the  American  Revolution,  and 
had  returned  to  France  for  funds  and  reinforcements. 
Miranda,  then  about  twenty-two  years  of  age,  was  one 
of  the  first  to  enlist,  and  on  reaching  Boston,  he  was 
given  a  position  on  the  staff  of  General  Washington. 
He  fought  through  the  war,  and  upon  the  organization 
of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  having  become 
inspired  by  the  example  of  Washington,  he  decided  to 
attempt  the  liberation  of  his  own  country. 


28  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Collecting  a  small  company  of  adventurers  from 
among  his  comrades  of  the  Continental  Army,  he  sailed 
from  New  York  and  landed  upon  the  coast  of  Vene- 
zuela. There  he  raised  the  standard  of  liberty  and 
issued  a  proclamation  calling  upon  his  fellow-country- 
men to  assert  their  independence.  But  public  opinion 
had  not  been  educated  to  a  point  favorable  to  such  radi- 
cal measures.  Miranda  was  easily  overcome  by  the 
forces  of  the  Spanish  governor.  Some  of  his  compan- 
ions were  shot,  some  were  imprisoned,  and  his  life  was 
spared  only  through  the  intercession  of  his  family  and 
friends.  Being  banished,  he  returned  to  Europe  and 
remained  for  a  time  in  France,  where  he  endeavored  to 
raise  money  and  men  to  renew  the  attack.  Then,  at- 
tracted by  the  splendors  of  the  court  of  Catherine  the 
Great,  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  spent  several 
years  there  as  the  favorite  and  acknowledged  lover  of 
that  remarkable  empress. 

Miranda  was  a  man  of  great  accomplishments,  —  a 
poet,  a  wit,  and  a  musician  ;  but  behind  the  gay  man- 
ners of  a  courtier  he  concealed  the  motive  of  his  life. 
He  failed  to  enlist  the  sympathy  of  Catherine  in  his 
plan  to  liberate  Venezuela,  and  when  the  French  Revo- 
lution broke  out  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  was  made  a 
general  of  division.  He  was  defeated  in  battle,  and 
was  deprived  of  his  command.  He  next  went  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  led  a  miserable  existence  in  garrets 
and  in  gutters,  writing  songs  and  pamphlets,  until  he 
was  rescued  by  Simon  Bolivar,  with  whom  he  returned 
to  Venezuela  in  1810. 

Bolivar,  who  was  thirty  years  younger  than  Miranda, 
was  also  a  native  of  Caracas,  a  man  of  good  family  and 


THE    FOUNDING   OF  THE    REPUBLICS.  29 

large  estates.  He,  too,  had  gone  to  Europe  to  finish  his 
education,  but  before  leaving  Venezuela,  he  had  become 
infected  with  the  revolutionary  fever.  During  a  tour 


SIMON    BOLIVAR. 


through  the  United  States,  he  visited  the  tomb  of 
Washington,  where,  in  a  most  dramatic  manner,  he  dedi- 
cated his  life  to  the  cause  of  Venezuelan  independence. 
These  two  men  fought  side  by  side  for  the  freedom 


30  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

of  their  native  land  and  won  some  glorious  victories. 
Miranda  was  made  dictator  in  1812,  but  serious  reverses 
followed,  and  he  again  fled  the  country.  He  was  caught 
and  delivered  to  the  Spaniards,  and  died  a  prisoner  at 
Cadiz,  in  1816. 

The  movement  thus  started  was  destined  to  issue  in 
success.  The  Argentine  provinces  declared  their  in- 
dependence in  1816  ;  Peru  in  1821 ;  and,  by  the  middle 
of  1824,  the  four  independent  states  of  Colombia,  Vene- 
zuela, Ecuador,  and  Bolivia  were  founded,  with  the 
original  colonial  boundaries  as  their  limits.  Uruguay 
and  Paraguay  were  separated  from  the  Argentine  Re- 
public about  1828,  and  became  independent  nations. 
The  present  constitution  of  Chile  dates  from  1883,  and 
its  independence  from  1831.  This  left  only  Brazil  in 
subjection  to  foreign  rule. 

When  Napoleon  took  possession  of  Portugal  in  1808, 
the  king  fled  to  Brazil  and  remained  there  until  1821. 
Then,  upon  his  return  to  Lisbon,  the  independence  of 
the  colony  was  declared,  and  Dom  Pedro  L,  the  eldest 
son  of  King  Joam  VI.  of  Portugal,  was  made  emperor. 
In  1831  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  late  Dom 
Pedro  II.,  who  ruled  until  the  republic  was  established 
in  1889. 

The  states  of  the  North  American  Union  were 
founded  by  enlightened  people,  well  versed  in  matters 
of  government,  comprising  among  their  number  many 
persons  of  liberal  education  and  of  high  religious  char- 
acter. They  had,  as  the  basis  of  their  colonies,  a  moral 
capacity  and  habits  of  obedience  to  law  and  justice. 
Among  such  a  people  self-government  was  easily 
established. 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF    COLOMBIA.  31 

The  Spanish-American  countries,  on  the  other  hand, 
were  founded  by  military  men  of  the  Middle  Ages,  who 
came  from  Southern  Europe  when  the  feudal  system  was 
in  its  full  power.  The  soldier  element,  everywhere  and 
at  all  times  imprudent  and  venturesome,  did  not  receive 
the  support  of  European  immigration ;  and  largely  for 
these  reasons,  the  growth  of  these  republics  has  been 
extremely  slow  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  United 
States. 


CHAPTER  V. 
HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF   COLOMBIA. 

COLOMBIA  occupies  the  extreme  northwestern  portion 
of  the  South  American  continent.  It  includes  within 
its  boundaries  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  by  which  it  is 
joined  to  Central  America  and  thus  to  the  North  Ameri- 
can continent  as  a  whole.  It  has  an  area  of  about 
514,000  square  miles  and  an  estimated  population  of 
nearly  4,500,000. 

We  must,  however,  note  the  fact  that  its  limits  are 
still  unsettled.  The  Costa  Rican  and  most  of  the 
Venezuelan  boundaries  are  established ;  but  large  por- 
tions of  the  southeastern  plain  are  claimed,  with  about 
equal  justice,  by  Venezuela,  Brazil,  and  Ecuador. 
These  regions  are  unexplored,  and  it  will  be  impossi- 
ble to  settle  the  division  of  them  for  a  long  time  to 
come.  This,  however,  does  not  affect  the  statistics  of 
population,  the  disputed  lands  being  occupied  only  by 
"wild"  Indians. 


32  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  original  inhabitants  of  Colombia  form  a  strongly 
marked  group,  known  as  the  Chibchas  or  Muiscas  of 
Bogota,  a  civilized  people,  noted  for  their  taste  and 
skill  in  the  execution  of  gold  ornaments.  Some  of 
these  works  recently  discovered  and  exhibited  in  London 
by  a  Mr.  Powles,  excited  universal  surprise  and  admira- 
tion ;  and  a  fine  collection  is  owned  by  the  Field  Colum- 
bian Museum  of  Chicago. 

The  coast  of  Colombia  was  one  of  the  first  parts  of 
the  American  continent  visited  by  the  Spanish  navi- 
gators. Alonso  de  Ojeda  touched  at  several  points  in 
1499  and  1501,  and  Columbus  himself  visited  Porto- 
bello  and  other  places  on  his  last  voyage  in  1502.  In 
1508  Ojeda  obtained  from  the  Spanish  Crown  a  grant 
of  the  district  from  Cape  Vela  westward  to  the  Gulf  of 
Darien,  and  the  rest  of  the  country  was  bestowed  upon 
one  of  his  fellow-adventurers. 

Of  these  earlier  years  it  is  difficult  to  write  with  cer- 
tainty ;  but  in  1536  three  distinct  expeditions,  unknown 
to  each  other,  approached  by  different  routes  the  rich 
domain  of  the  Chibchas.  The  first,  sent  out  by  the 
governor  of  Santa  Marta  and  commanded  by  Ximenes  de 
Quesada,  ascended  the  Magdalena  River;  the  second, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  governor  of  Venezuela  and 
led  by  Nicolaus  Federmann,  a  German,  accompanied  by 
the  venerable  Las  Casas,  marched  across  the  country  ; 
while  the  third,  organized  by  Sebastian  de  Benalcazar, 
a  lieutenant  of  the  notorious  Pizarro,  came  from  Peru. 

All  were  famous  war  veterans,  and  after  two  years, 
during  which  they  were  often  reduced  to  the  most  horri- 
ble extremities  because  of  thirst,  hunger,  the  natural 
obstacles  of  the  country,  and  the  fierce  opposition  of 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF   COLOMBIA. 


33 


its  inhabitants,  they  met  upon  the  present  plain  of 
Bogota.  Benalcazar  and  his  men,  having  marched 
direct  from  Quito,  were  finely  armored  and  presented 
an  imposing  array ;  Federmann's  troops  were  clothed  in 
the  skins  of  wild  beasts ; 
while  Quesada's  little  army 
had  been  compelled  to  adopt 
the  attire  of  the  natives. 

Reports  had  reached  their 
ears  of  the  wonderful  wealth 
of  this  land,  whose  ruler  was 
said  "  to  clothe  himself  in  a 
simple  coating  of  balsamif- 
erous  resins,  sprinkled  with 
gold  dust  blown  through  a 
bamboo  reed  twice  a  day," 
—  the  celebrated  legend  of 
El  Dorado,  in  vain  search  for 
which  were  sacrificed  count- 
less lives  and  untold  treas- 
ure. The  territory  of  the 
Chibchas  is  said  to  have  com- 
prised six  hundred  square 
leagues,  extensively  culti- 
vated, and  inhabited  by  a 

population  of  two  thousand  to  the  square  league.  They 
had  attained  a  degree  of  civilization  that  assigned  them 
the  third  place  in  America ;  but  without  unity  of  action, 
they  were  powerless  before  the  resistless  march  of  this 
handful  of  Spaniards. 

Quesada,  who   had  preceded  his  rivals,  promised  to 
divide   among  his  followers  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 


ANCIENT  SPANISH    MILESTONE. 


34  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

million  of  dollars  and  about  two  thousand  emeralds  — 
a  large  sum  in  those  days.  But  when  he  approached 
the  rich  temple  of  Suamoz,  where  the  fabulous  treasures 
were  supposed  to  be  stored,  its  priest  fired  the  exterior, 
hid  within  its  walls,  and  perished  in  the  flames,  destroy- 
ing, perhaps,  "  the  traditions  of  a  people  and  the  history 
of  a  nation." 

On  the  6th  of  August,  1538,  upon  the  site  of  the  sum- 
mer residence  of  the  native  chief,  Quesada  founded  Santa 
Fe  de  Bogota,  —  calling  it  Santa  Fe,  from  its  similarity 
of  situation  to  the  city  of  that  name  in  the  kingdom  of 
Granada  in  Spain,  and  Bogota,  after  a  native  prince. 
It  was  built  in  twelve  distinct  parts,  representative  of 
the  twelve  apostles.  To  the  highlands  about  Bogota 
he  gave  the  name  of  New  Granada,  in  remembrance  of 
his  native  province. 

In  the  jealous  rivalries  of  the  times,  Quesada  was 
thrust  aside  and  banished  from  the  land  he  had  secured. 
Later  he  was  restored,  and  was  made  marshal  of  the 
kingdom  of  New  Granada,  of  which  Colombia  was  then 
a  part.  He  lived  to  a  good  old  age  and  died  of  leprosy, 
in  the  year  1572. 

By  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Spanish 
power  was  fairly  established,  and  a  number  of  nourish- 
ing communities  sprang  up  in  the  territory  which  the 
Chibchas  had  formerly  occupied.  For  the  better  govern- 
ment of  the  colony,  the  Spanish  monarch  erected  a  presi- 
dency of  New  Granada,  which  continued  until  1718, 
when  it  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  viceroyalty  and  was 
officially  known  as  the  "Kingdom  of  New  Granada." 
In  1740  it  was  restored  to  the  direct  control  of  Spain, 
on  the  ground  that  the  maintenance  of  a  separate  gov- 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF  COLOMBIA. 


35 


ernment  imposed  too  heavy  a  burden  on  the  settlers. 
At  the  time  of  its  restoration,  New  Granada  contained 
within  its  limits  all  the  territory  now  possessed  by 
Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Ecuador. 

On  July  20,  1810,  the  colony  declared  its  intention 
of  shaking  off  the  yoke  of  the  mother  country,  and  a 


THE   HOME   OF  SIMON    BOLIVAR. 


bloody  war  ensued  for  thirteen  years.  At  the  close  of 
this  bitter  conflict,  which  resulted  in  favor  of  the  colo- 
nists, the  national  hero,  Simon  Bolivar,  was  elected  to 
the  presidency  of  the  republic  of  Colombia,  which,  like 
the  viceroy alty,  embraced  all  that  now  belongs  to 
Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Ecuador.  In  the  history  of 
South  American  independence  these  Colombian  states 
occupy  the  first  place. 


36  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Venezuela  and  Ecuador  withdrew  from  this  union  in 
1830,  and  the  republic  of  New  Granada  was  formed  the 
next  year,  embracing  what  is  now  Colombia  ;  but  a 
new  civil  war  in  1861  led  to  the  establishment  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  which  has  since  revived 
the  earlier  name  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia. 

When  the  Republic  of  Colombia  was  formed,  Bolivar, 
who  has  been  surnamed  the  Liberator  by  reason  of  the 
prominent  part  he  played  in  securing  its  independence, 
was  elected  the  first  president.  He  next  liberated 
Peru  from  the  Spaniards,  and  when  the  southern  part  of 
Peru  was  made  a  separate  state,  it  was  named  Bolivia  in 
his  honor.  He  was  again  elected  president  of  Colombia 
in  1826,  and  held  that  office  until  his  death  in  1830. 

In  1830  Bolivar  died,  and  about  one  month  before 
his  death  he  wrote  a  letter  to  the  late  General  Flores  of 
Ecuador,  in  which  the  following  remarkable  passage 
occurs :  "  I  have  been  in  power  for  nearly  twenty  years, 
from  which  I  have  gathered  only  a  few  definite  results: 
1.  America,  for  us,  is  ungovernable.  2.  He  who  dedi- 
cates his  services  to  a  revolution,  plows  the  sea.  3.  The 
only  thing  that  can  be  done  in  America,  is  to  emigrate. 
4.  This  country  will  inevitably  fall  into  the  hands  of 
the  unbridled  rabble,  and  little  by  little  become  a  prey 
to  petty  tyrants  of  all  colors  and  races." 

This  prophecy  has  been  turned  into  history.  Since 
Bolivar's  death  there  have  been  seventeen  presidents, 
and  almost  every  administration  has  been  marred  by 
scenes  of  insurrection  and  civil  war.  The  most  notable 
of  Colombia's  presidents  have  been  Santarider,  Mos- 
quera,  Murillo-Toro,  and  Nunez,  first  elected  in  1885 
and  reflected  for  a  fourth  term  in  1892. 


COLOMBIA   AND   HER   PEOPLE.  37 

During  the  year  1900  Colombia  was  engaged  in  a 
vigorous  and  bloody  civil  war,  and  the  country  is 
still  in  a  condition  of  great  unrest.  There  has  been, 
however,  much  real  progress.  Slavery  was  abolished 
in  1852 ;  the  government  has  steadily  increased  in  lib- 
erality and  breadth  of  administration;  and  there  are 
many  hopeful  signs  for  the  country's  future» 


CHAPTER  VI. 
COLOMBIA  AND    HER   PEOPLE. 

THE  present  Colombians  are  descended,  for  the  most 
part,  from  the  Indians  who  occupied  the  land  at  the 
advent  of  the  Spaniards.  The  natives  were  treated 
so  badly  that,  according  to  Quesada,  in  thirty-nine 
years  a  population  of  two  millions  was  reduced  to  a  few 
wretched  tribes.  But  from  these  humble  remnants, 
crossed  to  a  slight  degree  by  European  elements,  has 
sprung  the  Colombian  race. 

The  civilized  inhabitants  of  the  plateaus  and  upland 
valleys,  in  whom  the  European  and  the  Indian  elements 
are  completely  blended,  present  certain  marked  char- 
acteristics. For  example,  the  Andalusian  Mestizos  are 
noted  for  their  clear  vision,  impulsive  action,  and  lack 
of  perseverance.  The  Pastusos,  with  some  Quichua 
blood  in  their  veins,  have  the  same  patient,  long-suf- 
fering, cautious,  but  sullen  and  revengeful  spirit  as 
their  southern  kindred.  On  the  other  hand,  the  people 
of  the  Cauca  valley,  the  most  healthful  and  flourishing 
district  of  Colombia,  are  hospitable,  open-handed,  and 


38  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

full  of  sympathy  and  pity  for  the  weak.  "Their 
country,"  says  a  writer  in  Harpers  Magazine,  "has 
received  the  quaint  name  of  4the  gentle  land  of  yes,' 
being  a  people  who  can  never  say  '  no '  to  those  who 
ask.  But  they  are  impulsive  and  passionate,  flying  to 
arms  on  the  slightest  pretext  —  qualities  due  to  a  large 
strain  of  negro  blood." 

The  pure-blooded  Indian,  unless  a  soldier,  is  not 
usually  a  resident  of  Bogota,  although  he  makes  fre- 
quent pilgrimages  to  the  city.  In  South  America  the 
Indian  remains  in  his  primitive  state;  while  here  in 
North  America  he  has  adopted  not  only  the  language 
and  many  of  the  customs,  but  to  some  extent  the  re- 
ligion of  his  conquerors.  Two  principal  causes  have 
combined  to  produce  this  condition  of  affairs ;  namely, 
close  intermarriage  among  the  Indians,  and  the  fact 
that  the  tribes  occupying  the  country  at  the  time  of 
the  conquest  were  not  nomadic,  as  were  those  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada. 

Occasionally  the  visitor  encounters  Indians  of  a 
peculiar  German  physiognomy,  and  these  are  supposed 
to  be  descendants  of  the  followers  of  Federmann.  The 
Indians  are  hard-worked  and  poorly  paid.  They  are 
veritable  beasts  of  burden,  often  carrying  loads  of  from 
one  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  pounds,  sus- 
pended from  the  forehead  and  resting  upon  the  back. 
They  deliver  all  the  goods  sold  in  the  markets  of 
Bogota,  and  bring  their  fruits  arid  wares  over  difficult 
mountain  paths,  often  traveling  a  distance  of  one 
hundred  miles.  The  heavier  articles  of  commerce  are 
brought  upon  their  shoulders  from  the  river  terminus 
at  Honda. 


COLOMBIA   AND    HER    PEOPLE. 


39 


The  natives  of  Antioquia  are  said  to  have  some  Jew- 
ish blood  in  their  veins,  coming  from  a  number  of 
Jewish  converts  who  took  refuge  in  the  New  World. 
These  people 
are  noted  for 
their  intelli- 
gence and  busi- 
ness shrewd- 
ness. No  other- 
part  of  the  Co- 
lombian nation 
has  increased 
more  rapidly; 
for  the  popula- 
tion of  this  re- 
gion has  risen 
from  about  one 
hundred  thou- 
sand, at  the 
close  of  the 
eighteenth  cen- 
tury, to  over  one 
million,  in  1900. 
Should  they  con- 
tinue to  increase 
at  the  same  rate, 
the  Antioquians  will  soon  constitute  the  chief  section 
of  the  Colombian  population. 

On  the  coast  the  negro  element  has  held  its  own, 
and  even  increased  at  the  expense  of  other  races. 
Certain  pursuits,  as  those  of  bargemen  and  day  la- 
borers, are  almost  monopolized  by  the  "Sambos,"  as 


'ES   CARRYING    CINCHONA    BARK. 


40  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

all  the  half-breeds  are  called  in  whom  black  blood  is 
dominant. 

Life  is  everywhere  so  easy  in  the  tropics,  and  espe- 
cially in  this  delightful  climate,  that  it  is  not  surprising 
that  little  regard  is  taken  of  time ;  and  if  you  make  an 
engagement  with  a  native  for  five  o'clock  sharp,  you 
may  be  sure  he  will  not  come  before  six,  and  perhaps 
not  until  the  next  day. 

Outside  the  great  cities  the  roads  are  decidedly  bad. 
One  traveler  tells  us  that  he  was  three  hours  and  a 
half  in  riding  thirteen  miles.  Many  of  the  so-called 
roads  are  only  mountain  tracks,  and  these  seem  to  be 
regarded  as  all  that  is  necessary. 

The  scenery  in  general  is  gorgeous;  the  flowers, 
trees,  and  shrubs  are  exquisite,  and  some  of  the 
mountains  are  beautiful  in  the  extreme.  The  rivers 
are  full  of  islands,  and  scores  of  alligators  take  the  air 
on  the  sandy  banks  with  their  awful  jaws  wide  open. 
Sometimes  more  than  a  hundred  are  seen  in  a  single 
day's  travel,  especially  along  the  lower  stretches  of  the 
Magdalena  River. 

Honda  is  a  pretty  little  place,  something  like  a 
Welsh  village,  with  mountains  all  around;  and  though 
it  is  not  especially  noteworthy,  it  gives  promise  of 
future  growth  and  progress. 

The  city  of  Medellin,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Antioquia,  lies  within  the  temperate  zone,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  4860  feet,  and  is  a  place  full  of  "  hustle  "  and 
energy.  It  is  an  active  center  of  the  gold-mining 
industry,  and  in  the  surrounding  region  millions  of 
dollars  are  invested  by  English  capitalists.  This  one 
district  presents  the  rare  spectacle,  in  Colombia,  of  real 


COLOMBIA  AND   HER   PEOPLE.  41 

carriage  roads  radiating  from  Medellin  in  various  direc- 
tions up  and  down  the  Porci  valley,  reaching  out  to 
the  city  of  Antioquia  on  the  banks  of  the  Cauca  River, 
from  which  point  there  is  direct  water  travel  to  the 
coast. 

The  seasons  and  the  climate  differ  somewhat  from 
the  conditions  in  our  temperate  zone.  March,  April, 
and  May,  with  September,  October,  and  November, 
constitute  the  two  wet  seasons ;  while  June  to  August 
and  December  to  February  are  the  two  dry  seasons. 
Generally  it  is  warmest  in  February  and  coldest  in 
December,  although  it  is  never  so  cold  as  to  require 
artificial  heat  in  the  houses.  Both  cereals  and  vege- 
tables are  planted  twice  a  year,  in  February  and  Sep- 
tember; and  the  two  crops  are  harvested  in  July  and 
January.  Corn,  wheat,  barley,  rice,  potatoes,  and 
all  the  principal  vegetables  of  the  temperate  zone  are 
grown,  and  in  the  market  of  Bogota  may  be  seen, 
every  day  in  the  year,  apples,  peaches,  pears,  plums, 
and  strawberries,  side  by  side  with  crude  sugar,  choco- 
late in  the  bean,  unthreshed  coffee,  plantains,  pine- 
apples, oranges,  lemons,  cocoanuts,  fresh  figs,  and  all 
the  choicest  products  of  both  zones  in  rich  profusion. 
Their  growth  is  merely  a  question* of  altitude;  and  a 
day's  ride,  in  almost  any  direction,  is  sufficient  to 
carry  the  traveler  through  all  gradations  of  climate, 
from  extreme  heat  to  extreme  cold,  or  the  reverse. 

One  of  the  greatest  drawbacks  to  life  in  the  Colom- 
bian states  is  the  abundance  of  insect  pests  that,  at 
times,  make  life  almost  unbearable.  The  walking- 
stick  insect  —  also  called  "death  to  the  horse,"  because 
if  it  gets  into  the  horse's  food  it  is  fatal  —  is  about 


42 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


six  inches  long,  six-legged,  greenish  brown  in  color, 
with  long  antennae,  the  body  no  thicker  than  a  piece 
of  thin  twine,  and  the  legs  not  thicker  than  coarse 
thread.  These  insects  are  a  constant  nuisance,  and, 

at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year,  keep 
people  busy  brush- 
ing  them  from 
their  clothing  and 
driving  them  from 
the  houses.  But 
the  ants  are  worse 
still.  Food,  to 
be  kept  from  them, 
must  be  placed  on 
top  of  cups  set  in 
soup  plates  full  of 
water.  The  very 
tiny  black  ants 
swarm  over  every- 
thing sweet,  in- 
fest the  bread, 
and  spoil  the 
pleasures  of  the 
table  to  an  extent 

which  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  comprehend.  The  big 
red  soldier  ants  bite  severely,  and  their  bite  leaves  a 
painful  wound. 

An  old  resident  in  Bogota  says :  "  There  is  another 
black  ant,  which,  unlike  its  relations,  may  be  consid- 
ered 4a  boon  and  a  blessing  to  men  ' ;  but  the  first  intro- 
duction to  his  kind  was  a  little  alarming.  An  army 


A    BIRD   CATCHER   AND   SELLER. 


COLOMBIA   AND   HER    PEOPLE.  43 

of  them  invaded  the  house  one  morning.  They  were 
apparently  en  route  for  somewhere,  and  could  not  break 
their  line  for  such  a  trifling  obstacle  as  a  house.  They 
came  right  through ;  the  walls  and  the  floors  were  cov- 
ered. Clothes  were  hastily  thrown  into  boxes,  curtains 
turned  up,  furniture  put  into  a  heap  in  the  middle  of 
the  room,  and  the  inmates  retreated,  leaving  the  ants 
in  possession.  They  were  a  couple  of  hours  marching 
through ;  but  they  not  only  did  no  damage,  but  proved 
of  immense  benefit,  as  they  cleared  out  every  scorpion, 
beetle,  and  cockroach  in  the  place.  One  day  an  army 
on  the  march  met  a  two-year-old  laddie,  who  did  not 
yield  them  the  pass;  so  they  went  straight  over  him, 
to  his  extreme  discomfiture,  and  he  ,had  to  be  hastily 
removed,  undressed,  and  dusted,  to  shake  off  the 
invaders." 

It  has  been  wittily  said  that,  "If  King  Solomon  had 
lived  in  Colombia,  he  would  have  thought  it  hardly 
necessary  to  bid  the  sluggard, 'go  to  the  ant,'  for  the 
ant  comes  to  him  instead." 

The  most  important  of  the  secular  feasts  held  in 
Colombia,  and  especially  in  its  capital,  comes  on  the 
20th  of  July,  the  anniversary  of  its  independence. 
It  is  gratifying  to  know  that  our  own  "glorious 
Fourth,"  as  well  as  the  22d  of  February,  the  birthday 
of  the  first  American  liberator,  is  invariably  commemo- 
rated in  both  Houses  of  Congress  by  patriotic  and 
friendly  resolutions,  by  salutes  of  artillery,  and  evolu- 
tions by  the  garrison  of  Bogota  in  the  plaza.  For  their 
own  national  celebration  the  plaza  is  handsomely  deco- 
rated and  surrounded  by  temporary  grand  stands,  from 
which  the  entire  population  witness,  during  three  or 


44  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

four  days,  various  public  exhibitions,  feats  of  horse- 
manship, maneuvers  by  the  Colombian  Guard,  and 
bullfighting,  which  is  still  the  favorite  sport  of  the 
Colombian  people. 

The  national  colors,  yellow,  blue,  and  red,  said  to  be 
emblematical  of  the  blue  ocean  separating  the  blood- 
thirsty Spaniard  from  the  golden  shores  of  Colombia, 
float  from  every  private  house  and  public  edifice,  during 
the  great  gatherings;  and  the  hotels  and  the  Jockey 
Club  swarm  with  guests.  At  night  the  numerous 
gaming-houses,  brilliantly  illuminated,  allure  the  peo- 
ple by  the  thousand;  for  gambling  is  a  very  common 
vice,  and  during  this  season  everybody  is  expected  to 
play  as  a  mark  of  his  patriotism. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
IN  CITY  AND   COUNTRY. 

THE  capital  city  of  Colombia  is  Bogota.  It  is  finely 
situated  at  the  foot  of  a  spur  of  the  eastern  Andes, 
upon  an  inclined  plane  which  forms  the  base  of  two 
mountains.  These  peaks,  towering  two  thousand  feet 
above  the  city,  with  summits  covered  with  churches, 
make  an  imposing  picture.  To  the  west,  north,  and 
south  extends  one  of  the  most  beautiful,  fertile,  and 
elevated  plateaus  in  the  world,  about  thirty  miles  wide 
and  sixty  miles  long.  This  is  the  celebrated  Sabana 
of  Bogota.  It  is  fairly  cultivated  and  contains  several 
large  lakes  or  lagoons,  in  which  gold  ornaments  and 
images  of  aboriginal  workmanship  and  exceedingly 


IN   CITY   AND   COUNTRY.  45 

curious  design  have  frequently  been  found.  These 
discoveries  have  revived  traditions  of  the  former  con- 
secration of  these  lakes  as  natural  temples,  and  have 
led  to  numerous  but  ineffectual  projects  for  their 
drainage. 

To  the  traveler  who  with  difficulty  ascends  from  the 
parched  banks  of  the  Magdalena,  the  Sabana  presents 
a  scene  of  marvelous  beauty,  with  its  encircling  chain 
of  mountains  and  the  extinct  volcano  of  Tolima,  snow- 
capped arid  cloud-ridden,  in  the  distance,  with  its  culti- 
vated fields  and  green  pastures  dotted  with  beautiful 
homes,  and  the  city  of  Ibague  clustering  about  the 
mountain's  base.  Its  breezes  are  deliciously  cool  and 
invigorating.  So  equable  is  the  climate  that  one  may 
say  there  is  no  change  of  season,  or,  rather,  that  here 
reigns  perpetual  spring.  The  snowy  Sierra  de  Santa 
Marta,  rising  abruptly  above  the  sea  to  a  vertical  height 
of  over  three  miles,  presents  one  of  the  grandest  spec- 
tacles in  the  New  World. 

The  majority  of  the  houses  in  Bogota  are  of  one 
story,  because  of  the  prevalence  of  earthquakes,  but 
many  have  two  and  three  stories.  Their  exterior 
is  not  striking,  as,  with  tile  roofs,  little  architectural 
effect  can  be  attempted.  The  material  is  generally 
adobe,  or  sun-dried  brick,  and  the  walls  are  from  two 
to  three  feet  thick.  The  better  classes  live  as  com- 
fortably as  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  many  of  the 
private  residences  are  fitted  with  all  the  comforts  of 
life.  There  is  invariably  an  open  interior  court,  called 
a  patio,  in  the  center  of  which  is  perhaps  a  fountain 
surrounded  by  varied  and  beautiful  plants  which  bloom 
all  the  year  round. 


46  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  roofs  project  over  the  narrow  sidewalks  and 
furnish  partial  protection  from  the  rain.  The  prin- 
cipal streets  are  paved  or  macadamized,  and  are  built 
ut  right  angles  to  each  other.  They  are,  however, 
quite  narrow,  and  in  the  center  of  each  is  a  surface 
sewer,  often  poorly  supplied  with  water,  which  conveys 
the  refuse  of  the  city  to  the  plain  below.  The  base- 
ments of  the  houses,  in  many  parts  of  the  city,  are 
occupied  by  the  poorer  classes,  who  crowd  in  these 
dark  arid  close  quarters  together  with  poultry,  cats 
and  dogs,  monkeys  and  parrots.  They  live,  cook,  eat, 
and  sleep  in  the  same  apartment. 

The  city  is  supplied  with  water  from  two  mountain 
streams,  the  San  Francisco  and  San  Augustin,  which 
flow  through  its  limits,  the  water  being  conveyed  to 
public  fountains  placed  in  the  plaza.  Gas  and  electric 
lights  have  been  introduced,  and  the  principal  streets 
are  well  lighted  at  night  and  patrolled  by  police. 

Besides  the  university,  founded  in  1867  and  already 
the  best  establishment  of  the  kind  in  the  Andean  region 
north  of  Peru,  Bogota  possesses  -a  valuable  library  of 
over  fifty  thousand  volumes,  an  observatory,  a  fine  art 
institute,  a  picture  gallery,  an  herbarium,  and  other 
public  institutions. 

Colombia,  as  a  whole,  is  but  sparsely  peopled,  al- 
though certain  regions  of  the  plateau  already  resem- 
ble Europe  in  the  density  of  their  population.  In 
1898  the  actual  population  was  estimated  at  4,617,000. 
The  country  presents  exceptional  advantages  to  colo- 
nists of  every  race.  It  offers,  from  sea  level  to  the 
mountain  summits,  a  regular  succession  of  all  climates, 
—  hot,  moderate,  temperate,  cold,  combined  according 


IN    CITY   AND    COUNTRY. 


47 


to  the  slopes    and   aspects,   with  varying   degrees    of 
dry  ness  or  moisture. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Santa  Marta  group,  the 
Colombian  ranges  spread  out  like  the  ribs  of  a  fan 
toward  the  north  and  northeast,  and  are  so  disposed  as 
to  present  land  capable  of  cultivation  at  all  altitudes 


A    FREIGHT    BOAT. 


and  in  all  the  latitudes  and  longitudes  of  the  counhy. 
The  republic  would  therefore  be  in  a  position  to  wel- 
come multitudes  of  immigrants  if  accessible  routes 
were  constructed  from  the  coast  to  the  thinly  settled 
regions  of  the  temperate  and  cold  zones.  The  difficul- 
ties of  the  approaches  to  the  uplands  have  kept  settlers 
at  a  distance,  while  the  hot,  low-lying  coast  lands  are 
not  suitable  for  white  settlements. 


48  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  commerce  or  trade  of  Bogota  proper  is  estimated 
at  about  eighteen  millions  of  dollars  yearly,  and 
would  be  much  greater  but  for  the  inaccessibility  of 
the  city.  From  New  York  one  takes  the  Atlas  line  of 
steamships  to  Barranquilla,  the  direct  passage  occupy- 
ing about  twelve  days;  thence  by  steamboat  up  the 
Magdalena  to  Honda,  a  journey  of  from  nine  to  twelve 
days,  depending  entirely  upon  the  state  of  the  water ; 
and  from  Honda  to  Bogota  upon  mules  across  the  Cor- 
dilleras, a  distance  of  only  seventy-five  miles,  which 
requires  from  three  to  four  days.  However,  there  is 
now  being  constructed  a  railroad  to  the  Magdalena 
River,  and  other  interior  lines  are  contemplated.  Its 
inland  and  isolated  situation  has  made  Bogota  one  of 
the  least  progressive  of  the  capitals  of  South  America, 
and  more  than  any  other,  perhaps,  it  retains  its  old 
Spanish  aspects. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  surrounding  hills  may  be 
considered  as  inexhaustible,  but  it  is  largely  unde- 
veloped. Coal  beds  have  been  discovered  in  the 
province  of  Veragua,  where  brown  coal  exists  in  great 
abundance  and  in  ample  quantity  for  the  supply  of  the 
country  around.  This  same  coal  formation  is  found  on 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  the  island  of  Muerto.  The 
island  of  Santa  Clara  also  furnishes  coal  of  good  quality ; 
and  it  has  lately  been  found  on  the  south  side  of  the 
city  of  Bogota,  and  even  within  the  limits  of  the  city 
itself.  The  fuel  is  reputed  to  burn  extremely  well  and 
to  give  out  a  great  heat,  and  compares  favorably  with 
the  coals  of  the  upper  Missouri  valley. 

The  northwestern  part  of  the  republic  of  Colombia 
embraces  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  Isthmus  of 


IN   CITY   AND   COUNTRY.  49 

Panama.  This  part  of  the  country  is  full  of  historical 
interest.  It  was  here  that  the  Spaniards  first  obtained 
gold  in  large  quantities  from  the  Indians ;  and  it  was 
of  Darien  that  Balboa  wrote,  when  he  reported  to  his 
king  that  he  had  "discovered  a  country  with  thirty 
streams  carrying  gold."  The  Spaniards  early  settled 
this  region  and  were  repaid  for  their  toil  and  hardships 
by  the  rich  gold  fields. 

The  importance  of  a  navigable  connection  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  through  the  isthmus 
which  connects  North  and  South  America  calls  for  a 
condensed  view  of  the  chief  plans  proposed  at  different 
dates,  and  of  the  natural  obstacles  baffling  them  all  up 
to  the  present  time.  From  the  era  of  the  Spanish  con- 
quest of  America,  the  search  for  the  secret  of  the  sup- 
posed natural  strait  was  carried  on  along  the  whole  coast 
line  of  the  two  continents ;  and  when  this  ceased,  the 
possibility  of  the  construction  of  an  artificial  route 
began  to  be  discussed.  Governments,  companies,  and 
individuals  have  devoted  much  time  and  money  to  the 
search  for  a  practicable  route  for  a  ship  canal. 

The  total  length  of  the  Panama  canal,  as  at  present 
projected,  is  46  miles ;  the  heaviest  cutting,  that  in  the 
Culebra,  is  330  feet. 

The  original  estimate  of  cost  made  by  the  Panama 
Canal  Congress  was  $120,000,000.  At  the  close  of  the 
year  1888  the  amount  expended,  not  all  on  the  actual 
work,  however,  was  $200,000,000;  and  at  that  time  not 
more  than  one-third  of  the  whole  work  was  completed. 
In  1890  it  was  estimated  that  it  would  require,  to  com- 
plete the  canal  at  sea  level,  about  $600,000,000  over 
and  above  all  that  had  already  been  expended.  Ameri- 


50  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

can  capitalists  are  now  taking  up  the  project,  and  there 
is  a  prospect  that  the  work  will  yet  be  done. 

Panama,  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  the  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the  southern  or 
Pacific  side  of  the  isthmus,  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of 
Panama.  It  is  the  oldest  city  of  European  origin  in 
continental  America,  having  been  founded  in  1519. 

The  completion  of  the  isthmian  railway,  in  1855, 
gave  the  city  a  new  impetus,  but  it  has  suffered  greatly 
from  revolutions  and  from  destructive  fires.  The  mod- 
ern city  is  built  on  a  rocky  peninsula.  There  is  no 
proper  harbor  for  large  vessels ;  the  anchorage,  eleven 
miles  from  the  city,  is  partly  protected  by  reefs  and 
islands,  but  during  the  prevalence  of  north  winds  it  is 
inconvenient  and  sometimes  dangerous.  Owing  to  the 
force  of  the  tides,  which  rise  from  twelve  to  twenty- 
two  feet,  landings  can  be  effected  with  safety  only  at 
certain  hours;  and  small  steamers  and  lighters  are 
used  to  transfer  passengers  and  freight. 

The  Magdalena  is  the  chief  river  of  Colombia,  and 
is  the  fourth  river  of  South  America  in  volume.  Its 
main  direction  is  from  south  to  north,  between  two 
ranges  of  mountains.  Its  tributary,  the  river  Bogota, 
a  little  below  the  capital,  is  precipitated  475  feet 
into  a  rocky  chasm,  clothed  with  rich,  tropical  vege- 
tation and  usually  shrouded  in  mist.  This  forms  what 
is  known  as  the  Tequendama  Falls.  It  presents  a 
wonderful  spectacle,  for  at  this  point  4250  cubic  feet 
of  water  per  second  are  discharged  in  a  single  column 
over  a  fall  three  times  higher  than  that  of  Niagara. 

Scarcely  less  wonderful  is  the  natural  bridge  of 
Pandi,  formed  by  three  enormous  bowlders  sustaining 


•    IN   CITY   AND   COUNTRY.  51 

each  other  and  spanning  the  perpendicular  walls  of  a 
profound  abyss,  through  whose  depths  flows  the  river 
Sumapaz.  This  chasm  is  fully  three  miles  in  length, 
and  recent  measurements  give  the  height  of  the  bridge 
above  the  water  at  265  feet. 


POTTERY   TRADERS   ON   THE   MAGDALENA    RIVER. 

Colombia  contributes  little  to  the  general  trade  of 
the  world.  The  coffee  of  Santander  and  the  tobacco  of 
the  Tolima  valley  are  the  two  main  products  of  the  soil. 
Vegetable  ivory,  bark,  and  gold  are  exported  from  its 
natural  products.  In  fact,  its  gifts  to  the  outside 


52  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

world  are  scarcely  worth  mentioning  when  we  compare 
them  with  those  of  the  republics  farther  south. 

The  Colombian  flora  rivals  that  of  Brazil  both  in  the 
variety  of  its  plants  and  in  the  splendor  of  its  flowers 
and  foliage.  Palms  occur  everywhere,  but  nearly  always 
solitary  or  in  isolated  groups.  There  is  such  a  variety 
that  the  botanist  Andre  found  twenty-five  different 
species  in  a  three  days'  search.  The  wax  palms,  which 
are  very  numerous,  shoot  up  straight  and  graceful  as 
a  reed  to  a  height  of  two  hundred  feet.  A  single  stem 
will  yield  from  sixteen  to  twenty-four  pounds  of  white 
or  yellowish  wax,  which  is  sold  at  a  high  price  for 
making  wax  matches. 

There  is  also  another  remarkable  palm,  called  the 
cornete,  which  grows  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras facing  the  llanos.  From  six  to  eight  feet  above 
the  ground  rise  long,  slender  shoots  in  the  form  of  a 
pyramid.  Upon  these  grow  fruits  resembling  plums 
in  size  and  appearance.  These  grow  in  clusters 
weighing  from  120  to  200  pounds. 

The  tagua  palm  grows  abundantly  on  the  banks  of 
the  Magdalena,  and  has  the  appearance  of  a  young 
cocoanut  tree.  Its  large  fruit,  or  "negro  head,"  of 
melon  shape  contains  numerous  grains  too  hard  for  the 
teeth  of  the  peccary  or  monkey.  This  is  the  "vegetable 
ivory  "  of  commerce.  There  is  another  useful  variety 
of  the  palm,  whose  fan-shaped  leaves  furnish  the  ma- 
terial used  for  making  "Panama  hats." 

Scarcely  less  numerous  than  the  palms  are  the  tree 
ferns.  Their,  stems  are  used  for  making  the  so-called 
"palisaded  roads,"  where,  but  for  these  "sleepers,"  the 
traveler  would  run  the  risk  of  disappearing  in  the 
quagmires. 


IN   CITY   AND   COUNTRY.  53 

Mr.  Frederick  Boyle,  an  American  gentleman  who 
spent  many  years  in  Colombia,  writes  of  these  giant 
ferns  as  follows :  — 

"  Great  tree  ferns  meet  across  the  bubbling  water, 
their  fronds  translucent  as  green  glass  where  the  sun- 
light flickers  through  a  canopy  of  leaves.  Every  tree 
is  clad  and  swathed  in  creepers,  huge  snakes  of  vegeta- 
tion, bare  and  ponderous,  sunning  their  jeweled  heads 
at  a  windy  height  above,  or  slender  tendrils  starred 
with  blossoms.  Here  and  there  is  a  vast,  hollow  pillar, 
reticulated,  plated,  intertwined  —  the  casing  of  a  para- 
site which  now  stands  unaided,  feeding  on  the  rotten 
debris  of  its  late  support,  and  stretching  murderous 
arms  abroad  in  the  world  of  leaves  above  to  clasp 
another  victim.  Other  trees  are  fading  to  a  lovely 
death  under  shrouds  of  fern,  which  descend  from  the 
topmost  branches  in  a  gray-green  cataract  soft  as  a  fall, 
three  feet  in  thickness  of  tender  sprays.  Great  sheaves 
of  bamboo  make  an  arch  of  verdant  feathers  overhead. 
A  thousand  tropic  blossoms  unknown  to  us  clothe  earth 
and  brushwood  in  a  veritable  sheet  of  color." 

Perhaps  we  can  also  best  explain  the  nature  of  the 
cotton  trees,  so  famous  in  this  country,  by  inserting  the 
following  description  from  the  well-known  English 
writer,  Charles  Kingsley:  — 

"The  hugest  English  oak  would  have  seemed  a 
stunted  bush  beside  it.  Borne  up  on  roots,  or  rather 
walls,  of  twisted  board  some  12  feet  high,  rose  the 
enormous  trunk  full  40  feet  in  girth,  towering  like 
some  tall  lighthouse,  smooth  for  100  feet,  then  crowned 
with  boughs,  each  of  which  was  a  stately  tree  whose 
topmost  twigs  were  full  250  feet  from  the  ground. 


54 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


THE    FEATHERY    BAMBOO. 


And  yet  it  was  easy  for  the  sailors  to  ascend,  so  many 
natural  ropes  had  kind  nature  lowered  for  their  use,  in 


IN    CITY   AND   COUNTRY.  55 

the  smooth  lianes  which  hung  to  the  very  earth,  often 
without  a  knot  or  leaf.  Once  in  the  tree,  you  were 
within  a  new  world,  suspended  between  heaven  and 
earth,  and,  as  Gary  said,  no  wonder  if  like  Jack,  when 
he  climbed  the  magic  beanstalk,  you  had  found  a  castle, 
a  giant,  and  a  few  acres  of  well-stocked  park,  packed 
away  somewhere  behind  that  labyrinth  of  timber.  Par- 
rots peeped  in  and  out  of  every  cranny,  while  within 
the  airy  woodland  brilliant  hybrids  basked  like  living 
gems  upon  the  bark,  gaudy  finches  flittered  and  chir- 
ruped, butterflies  of  every  size  and  color  hovered  over 
the  topmost  twigs,  innumerable  insects  hummed  from 
morn  till  eve ;  and  when  the  sun  went  down,  tree-toads 
came  out  to  snore  and  croak  till  dawn.  There  was 
more  life  round  that  one  tree  than  in  a  whole  square 
mile  of  English  soil." 

The  orchids,  of  which  Colombia  possesses  some  of 
the  very  finest  varieties,  are  threatened  with  extinction, 
owing  to  the  zeal  with  which  they  have  been  appro- 
priated by  European  and  American  collectors. 

The  Colombian  fauna,  no  less  rich  than  its  flora,  is 
especially  distinguished  for  the  amazing  variety  of 
smaller  animal  forms,  —  birds,  fishes,  and  insects.  The 
present  mammals,  such  as  apes,  bats,  and  vampires, 
pumas,  jaguars,  bears,  sloths,  and  ant-eaters,  tapirs 
and  peccaries,  belong  to  the  same  species  as  those  of 
Venezuela  and  Central  America. 

The  humming-bird  is  also  very  common  here.  An 
old  French  naturalist  gives  a  pretty  description  of  it, 
which  it  quite  deserves.  "Of  all  animated  beings  it 
is  the  most  elegant  in  form  and  the  most  brilliant  in 
colors  —  our  precious  stones  cannot  be  compared  in 


56  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

luster  to  this  jewel  of  Nature,  who  has  bestowed  on  it 
all  the  gifts  which  she  has  only  shared  amongst  other 
birds.  Lightness,  swiftness,  grace,  and  the  most 
splendid  clothing  all  belong  to  this  little  favorite. 
The  emerald,  the  ruby,  and  the  topaz  sparkle  in  its 
plumage,  which  it  never  defiles  with  the  dust  of  the 
earth,  and  scarcely  ever  deigns  to  touch  to  the  green  turf 
for  a  moment.  It  is  always  on  the  wing,  fluttering 
from  flower  to  flower,  and  possesses  their  freshness  as 
well  as  their  brilliancy;  it  lives  on  their  nectar,  and 
only  inhabits  those  climates  where  flowers  never  cease 
to  bloom.  It  is  in  the  warmest  regions  of  the  new 
world  that  all  the  species  known  of  these  birds  are 
found;  for  those  which  advance  in  summer  to  the  tem- 
perate zones  only  remain  there  a  short  time.  They 
seem  to  follow  the  sun,  and  advance  and  retire  with 
him,  and  to  fly  on  the  wings  of  zephyr  in  the  train  of 
an  eternal  spring." 

Such,  in  brief,  is  Colombia;  and  we  hope  that  many 
of  our  readers  will  have  the  privilege  of  visiting  it  for 
themselves. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF   VENEZUELA. 

THE  early  history  of  Venezuela  is  inseparably  con- 
nected with  that  of  Colombia,  of  which  it  formed  for 
many  years  a  part;  yet  there  are  important  points  of 
difference  to  be  noted,  in  order  to  gain  a  proper  under- 
standing of  the  Venezuela  of  to-day. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH   OF  VENEZUELA.  57 

In  the  year  1499  many  wonderful  stories  regarding 
the  third  voyage  of  Christopher  Columbus  were  circu- 
lated in  Spain,  and  a  number  of  bold  sailors  were  led  to 
follow  his  example.  Among  the  more  noted  of  these 
adventurers  were  Alonso  de  Ojeda,  Juan  de  la  Cosa, 
and  Americus  Vespucius.  These  men  sailed  for  the 
New  World,  as  it  was  then  called,  on  May  20th  of 
that  year;  and  as  Ojeda  had  accompanied  Columbus 
on  his  second  voyage,  they  followed  the  same  course 
which  he  had  pursued,  and  eventually  reached  the 
coast  of  the  mainland  which  Columbus  had  already 
discovered. 

This  land  Ojeda  named  Venezuela,  which  means 
little  Venice.  His  reason  for  thus  naming  the  place 
appears  to  have  been  that  he  found  an  Indian  village  in 
the  lake  of  Maracaibo,  built  on  piles,  the  inhabitants 
communicating  with  each  other  by  means  of  canoes. 
The  name  is  certainly  a  pretty  one,  but  it  is  not  very 
appropriate,  as  Venezuela  and  Venice  have  scarcely 
anything  in  common. 

It  is  by  no  means  certain  that  Ojeda  and  his  party 
landed  at  this  time,  nor  is  it  now  believed  that  Colum- 
bus made  any  stay  when  he  discovered  the  eastern 
coast  during  the  preceding  year.  Historians  assert  with 
great  positiveness  that  "there  is  no  evidence  of  any 
landing  prior  to  that  made  in  1510,  on  the  small  island 
of  Cubagua,  situated  in  the  channel  between  the  island 
of  Margarita  and  the  mainland,  where  was  founded  the 
first  settlement,  known  as  New  Cadiz.  In  the  course 
of  time  it  became  the  rendezvous  for  a  nest  of  pirates, 
who  persecuted  the  natives  and  sold  them  as  slaves  on 
the  neighboring  islands.  A  short  time  afterward  New 


58  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Cadiz  disappeared,  and  Cubagua  was  abandoned,  remain- 
ing uninhabited  to  the  present  day." 

In  1520  the  city  of  Cumana  was  founded  on  the 
southern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Cariaco,  and  this  is  one 
of  the  oldest  cities  on  the  American  continent.  Five 
years  later  Asuncion,  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Mar- 
garita, was  founded.  This  island  received  its  name 
from  the  abundance  of  pearls  found  on  its  coast,  "  mar- 
garita  "  being  a  Spanish  word  for  pearls. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  Venezuelan  coast,  opposite  to 
the  island  of  Margarita  where  Cumana  was  established, 
was  called  New  Andalusia  by  its  first  colonizers.  It 
has  been  claimed  by  some  that  Coro  and  its  port,  La 
Vela,  were  the  most  ancient  settlements  on  the  main- 
land; but  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  when  these 
places  were  settled,  in  1527,  there  were  at  least  three 
other  settlements  in  the  territory  of  New  Andalusia, 
two  of  them  dating  from  1525. 

The  colony  of  Coro  was  founded  by  Juan  de  Ampue's, 
a  Spanish  nobleman  prominent  in  the  affairs  of  the 
times,  and  was  from  its  very  beginning  and  through  a 
long  period  of  years  the  most  important  of  the  Spanish 
settlements.  It  was  the  starting-point  for  the  numerous 
exploring  expeditions  that  were  sent  to  the  interior  of 
Venezuela  and  Colombia  in  search  of  gold  and  of  "  El 
Dorado,"  the  fabled  king  of  an  equally  fabulous  Indian 
city.  In  its  most  definite  form,  the  story  told  in  those 
early  times  described  a  lake  and  an  island  on  which  was 
a  city  marvelously  rich  in  gold,  silver,  and  precious 
stones.  But  the  much  sought  region  has  never  been 
discovered. 

The  conquest  of  Venezuela  does  not  offer,  like  that 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF  VENEZUELA.  59 

of  Mexico  and  of  Peru,  material  of  great  interest,  as 
the  Indians  of  that  country  had  not  reached  such  a 
high  plane  of  civilization  as  the  Incas  and  the  Aztecs; 
nor  did  Spain  send  against  them  such  captains  as  Pizarro 
and  Cortes. 


STATUE   OF    BOLIVAR. 


In  the  year  1567  Diego  de  Losada  founded  the  city 
of  Caracas,  which  is  to-day  the  capital  of  Venezuela. 
This  city  is  situated  in  the  beautiful  valley  that  formed 
part  of  the  domain  of  the  heroic  Caracas  tribe  of  In- 
dians, whose  obstinate  resistance  in  their  struggle  for 


60  THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

independence  forms  the  most  glorious  page  in  the 
history  of  that  part  of  America.  More  than  two  cen- 
turies passed  before  the  final  conquest  and  settlement 
of  Venezuela  was  accomplished  by  Spain. 

As  soon  as.  Spanish  rule  was  established  in  Caracas, 
the  construction  of  highroads  and  other  improvements 
were  begun,  the  Indians  being  employed  as  laborers  in 
all  these  enterprises ;  but  still  progress  was  slow,  and 
affairs  in  general  remained  in  a  most  unsettled  condition. 

The  first  efforts  of  the  people  to  free  themselves  from 
the  Spanish  yoke  were  not  successful.  General  Miranda 
landed  at  Coro  in  1806,  but  he  found  that  the  people 
were  not  ready  for  war.  He  was  obliged  to  withdraw 
and  to  postpone  to  a  later  date  the  war  of  independence, 
owing  to  a  want  of  unity  in  the  opposition  to  the  Spanish 
power. 

The  events  which  followed  this  failure  sharpened 
the  sense  of  oppression  and  increased  the  discontent. 
This  feeling  took  form  in  the  revolutions  of  1810  and 
1811,  which  began  with  the  deposing  of  the  Spanish 
governor.  After  one  of  the  most  ferocious  and  bloody 
wars  imaginable,  the  republican  arms  triumphed  on  the 
memorable  field  of  Boyaca,  where  the  independence  of 
Venezuela  and  Colombia  was  sealed  forever.  A  short 
time  after  this,  Ecuador,  which  was  liberated  by  the 
efforts  of  Bolivar,  was  united  with  these  two  countries. 
For  a  time  New  Granada  was  retained  as  a  collective 
name  for  the  provinces  which  had  composed  the  old 
viceroyalty,  until  they  were  merged  into  the  republic 
of  Colombia. 

Bolivar  was  a  great  statesman  as  well  as  a  great  gen- 
eral, and  he  was  quick  to  see  that  the  independence  of 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF  VENEZUELA. 


61 


the  republic  of  Colombia  was  by  no  means  free  from 
danger  so  long  as  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  the  other  countries 
of  the  south  remained  under  the  rule  of  Spain.  As 
president  of  the  republic  of  Colombia,  he  entered  into 
communication  with  these  countries,  and  not  long  after- 
ward received  a  request  for  aid  from  the  people  of  Peru. 


THE   CAPITOL   AT   CARACAS. 


He  at  once  sent  out  General  Sucre  with  the  soldiers 
necessary  for  the  undertaking ;  and  then,  having  placed 
the  affairs  of  Colombia  in  the  hands  of  the  vice  presi- 
dent, he  immediately  followed  to  the  scene  of  the 
struggle.  On  his  arrival  at  Lima,  he  reorganized  the 
army  and  assunfed  the  presidency,  which  he  continued  to 
hold  while  there  were  enemies  to  fight  and  conquer.  He 
finally  triumphed,  arid  thus  the  independence  of  the 


62  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

two  republics  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  was  permanently 
secured. 

There  were  a  few  matters  that  still  needed  attention 
in  Venezuela,  and  to  these  Bolivar  now  turned.  Al- 
though the  independence  of  Colombia  and  Venezuela 
was  secured,  neither  the  castle  of  Puerto  Cabello  nor 
that  of  San  Carlos  at  the  entrance  of  Lake  Maracaibo 
nor  the  city  of  Maracaibo  was  yet  free  from  Spanish  con- 
trol. These  surrendered  successively.  Puerto  Cabello, 
after  a  desperate  struggle,  capitulated  to  General  Paez ; 
and  Maracaibo  was  attacked  and  taken  by  the  fleet 
under  command  of  the  great  sailor,  Jos£  Padilla,  who 
forced  the  bar,  entered  the  lake,  and,  opposite  the  plaza 
of  Maracaibo,  fought  and  vanquished  the  Spanish 
squadron,  which  was  superior  in  number  to  his  own. 

The  independence  of  Venezuela  being  now  considered 
as  assured,  the  Liberator  returned  to  Colombia,  where 
he  put  forth  the  greatest  efforts  to  maintain  the  "  Un- 
ion "  between  the  three  sections  composing  it  ;  but  he 
was  unsuccessful  and  finally  resigned  his  command. 
He  died  broken-hearted  in  November,  1830,  at  his 
country  seat  near  the  port  of  Santa  Marta,  at  the  mo- 
ment that  Colombia,  the  creation  of  his  genius  and  of 
his  sword,  was  being  dismembered  and  divided  into  the 
three  republics  known  to-day  as  Venezuela,  Colombia, 
and  Ecuador. 

The  republics,  having  declared  themselves  independent 
countries,  naturally  sought  to  obtain  from  the  mother 
country  a  treaty  of  peace  and  a  formal  recognition  of 
the  new  order  of  things.  All  three  succeeded  in  secur- 
ing this.  The  treaty  of  peace,  on  the  part  of  Venezuela, 
was  signed  at  Madrid  on  March  30,  1847.  Her  inde- 


SOME   VENEZUELAN   CITIES.  63 

pendence  was  formally  recognized,  together  with  her 
possession  of  all  rights  of  the  crown  to  the  territory 
previously  belonging  to  Spain,  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  captaincy  general  of  Venezuela. 

The  Venezuelan  government  of  these  later  years  is 
based  upon  the  declaration  of  the  rights  of  man  made 
by  the  United  States  in  1776,  and  upon  the  same  ideas 
of  liberty  and  order  which  prevail  in  this  country. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SOME   VENEZUELAN  CITIES. 

THE  cities  of  Venezuela  are  worthy  of  special  notice. 
Caracas,  the  capital,  lies  about  630  miles  north  of  the 
equator,  and  in  about  the  same  longitude  as  Boston. 
It  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  valley  not  more  than  three 
or  four  miles  wide.  The  scenery  is  magnificent.  To 
the  north  beautiful  wooded  mountains,  nearly  9000  feet 
high,  stand  outlined  against  the  clear  blue  tropical  sky, 
while  along  the  southern  side  another  ridge,  about 
3000  feet  high,  hems  in  the  valley. 

Stretches  of  sugar  cane  fill  the  valley,  and  groves  of 
coffee  trees  decorate  the  foothills.  Up  the  valley  to 
the  west  may  be  seen  a  narrow  pass,  through  which 
runs  the  road  to  Valencia,  the  second  city  of  importance 
in  Venezuela.  An  aqueduct  built  through  this  valley 
brings  an  ample  supply  of  water  to  the  capital  from  the 
mountains  above.  To  the  east  of  the  city,  the  slopes 
of  the  mountains  are  covered  with  long  lines  of  coffee 
plantations  stretching  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see.  Their 


64  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

beautiful  dark  green  covering  presents  a  rich  contrast 
to  the  fields  of  sugar  cane. 

The  climate  of  Caracas  is  delightful.  The  tempera- 
ture never  rises  above  82°  F.,  nor  does  it  fall  below 
65°  F.,  save  occasionally,  and  then  only  for  a  few  hours, 
toward  the  end  of  December  when  the  temperature  is 
lowest.  The  highest  temperature  is  felt  from  June  to 
September. 

The  name  of  Santiago  de  Leon,  by  which  Caracas  was 
first  known,  was  long  retained  in  its  public  documents. 
The  growth  of  the  city  has  been  exceedingly  slow, 
because  for  the  last  seventy  years  the  people  have  been 
engaged  in  almost  constant  domestic  strife.  Men  have 
been  killed  off  faster  than  children  have  been  born,  and 
immigrants  have  avoided  the  country  because  of  the 
lack  of  security  for  life  and  property.  Caracas  has  also 
suffered  severely  from  earthquakes.  In  1812  the  city 
was  entirely  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  and  12,000 
people  are  said  to  have  perished  in  the  ruins.  Within 
recent  years  very  little  loss  had  come  from  this  cause, 
until  in  1900  occurred  an  earthquake  which  resulted 
in  great  damage.  The  houses  are  constructed  of  thick 
adobe  walls,  to  render  them  as  nearly  earthquake  proof 
as  possible,  and  most  of  them  are  only  one  story  high. 
The  present  population  of  about  80,000  souls  occupies 
10,379  dwellings,  each  family  occupying  a  single 
house. 

The  people  of  Caracas  hardly  know  what  a  fire  is. 
There  is  not  a  heating  stove  in  the  entire  city,  for  there 
is  no  need  of  fires  or  other  artificial  heat  at  any  season 
of  the  year.  The  only  fuel  is  charcoal,  of  which  a 
small  supply  is  used  in  the  kitchen.  This  charcoal  is 


SOME   VENEZUELAN    CITIES. 


65 


IN  UPPER  CARACAS. 


put  in  the  corner  of  an  arrangement  like  a  blacksmith's 
forge,  with  holes  for  pots  and  kettles,  so  that  the  cook 
can  have  as  many  or  as  few  fires  as  he  likes.  The  houses 
seem  to  be  constructed  with  the  one  general  purpose  of 
securing  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  coolness. 

Caracas,  like  most  South  American  towns,  is  laid  out 
in  regular  squares  of  equal  area  and  frontage,  divided 
by  narrow  streets  paved  with  small  cobblestones.  The 
streets  are  numbered  from  the  Plaza  Bolivar,  —  a  beauti- 
ful square  in  the  center  of  the  town,  —  just  as  the  streets 
of  Washington  are  lettered  and  numbered  from  the 
Capitol.  The  cathedral,  which  fronts  on  the  plaza,  is 
really  the  center  of  the  city  as  a  whole. 

The  Plaza  Bolivar  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  places 
in  the  city.  In  its  centre  rises  the  bronze  equestrian 
statue  of  Bolivar,  considered  one  of  the  most  notable 
examples  of  modern  art.  There  are  other  statues  of 


66  THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

prominent  men  —  among  them  the  statue  of  Washing- 
ton in  tho  plaza  of  the  same  name,  placed  there  in  token, 
of  the  admiration  and  love  with  which  Venezuela  has 
always  regarded  the  "  Father  of  American  Liberty," 
and  of  her  sympathy  with  the  United  States.  Caracas 
was  the  first  of  the  capitals  of  Spanish  America  to  con- 
secrate an  imperishable  testimony  of  the  gratitude  the 
people  owe  to  the  founder  of  the  first  free  and  independ- 
ent nation  in  the  world  of  Columbus. 

Among  the  most  notable  buildings  of  Caracas  is  the 
Capitol,  which  occupies  an  entire  square,  or  an  area  of 
more  than  two  acres.  Within  this  building  are  the  two 
halls  where  the  chambers  of  the  national  Congress  hold 
their  sessions,  and  rooms  for  the  secretaries'  oifices  and 
committees.  Here  are  hung  the  portraits  of  the  presi- 
dents of  the  republic,  with  Simon  Bolivar  at  the  head, 
followed  by  the  principal  statesmen  and  heroes  of  the 
struggle  for  independence,  and  ending  with  the  mili- 
tary champions  who  most  distinguished  themselves  in 
defense  of  their  country's  liberty.  The  great  battle  of 
Carabobo,  which  secured  the  victory  of  the  arms  of  the 
republic  and  its  separation  from  the  Spanish  power, 
is  beautifully  represented  in  the  rotunda  of  the  great 
hall.  It  is  the  master  work  of  the  Venezuelan  artist, 
Martin  Tovar,  who  is  also  the  author  of  an  admirable 
painting  representing  the  memorable  session  when  the 
representatives  of  Venezuela  signed  and  proclaimed  to 
the  world  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

In  the  museum  at  Caracas  is  a  room  set  apart  to  pre- 
serve all  the  records  and  relics  that  cling  around  the 
life  of  the  beloved  Bolivar.  "  All  the  orders  issued  when 
in  command  of  the  armies  of  the  struggling  republics, 


68  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

every  letter  he  wrote  in  his  romantic  and  stormy  life, 
are  religiously  preserved  for  the  inspection  of  the  people. 
Here  may  be  found  the  very  clothing  that  he  wore,  the 
dishes  and  plate  he  used,  his  camp-stool  and  writing 
desk,  together  -with  all  the  weapons  that  he  used  in 
war."  The  house  where  Bolivar  was  born  is  near  the 
center  of  the  city,  and  in  its  day  was  one  of  the  finest 
residences  in  the  capital.  It  is  marked  by  a  tablet  of 
marble  inscribed :  — 

Here  was  Born 

SIMON  BOLIVAR, 

July  24,  1783. 

There  is  an  old  building  with  thick  adobe  walls  at 
Caracas  which  is  as  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  South  Ameri- 
can patriots  as  Independence  Hall  in  Philadelphia  is 
to  the  people  of  the  United  States.  In  this  building,  on 
the  5th  of  July,  1811,  a\"  junta,"  or  convention  of  lead- 
ing citizens,  assembled  and  formally  proclaimed  their 
Declaration  of  Independence. 

"  The  original  document,  in  the  handwriting  of  Fran- 
cisco Miranda,  hangs  upon  the  wall  to-day,  bearing  his 
own  signature  and  those  of  sixty  or  more  of  his  fellow- 
patriots,  representing  the  best  families  of  Venezuela. 
It  is  faded  and  frayed,  and  some  of  the  lines  are  almost 
illegible  ;  but  it  is  the  most  precious  historical  relic  in 
the  country,  and  is  preserved  with  religious  care.  At 
the  end  of  the  room  hangs  a  large  painting,  perhaps  the 
finest  work  of  art  in  Caracas,  representing  the  scene 
with  approximate  accuracy,  although  some  of  the  many 
figures  were  painted  from  memory." 


SOME   VENEZUELAN   CITIES.  69 

The  National  Pantheon  is  a  building  dedicated  to 
guarding  the  mortal  remains  of  the  great  men  of  Vene- 
zuela. The  present  edifice,  which  is  raised  on  the  site  of 
the  Old  Trinidad  temple,  was  dedicated  on  January  27, 
1877.  It  has  three  naves,  and  at  the  head  of  the  central 
nave  stands  a  magnificent  marble  monument,  which  was 
erected  to  the  memory  of  Bolivar  and  contains  his  ashes. 

The  Masonic  Temple  of  the  city  of  Caracas  is  consid- 
ered the  best  of  its  kind  in  all  South  America.  Foreign 
freemasons  are  well  received  by  the  Grand  Lodge  of 
Venezuela. 

Four  railway  lines  start  from  Caracas.  The  line  to 
La  Guayra  is  a  bold  undertaking,  because  it  must  encir- 
cle the  lofty  peak  of  Mount  La  Silla.  The  Petare  line 
has  been  carried  only  a  few  miles  beyond  the  town  of 
Petare,  in  the  direction  of  the  rich  valleys  of  Tuy, 
though  it  has  been  contracted  and  paid  for  as  far  as  Santa 
Lucia.  The  Valle  line  is  built  for  only  two  or  three 
miles.  The  longest  line  goes  to  Valencia  and  Puerto 
Cabello,  crossing  the  high  Cordilleras  that  surround 
Caracas,  and  dropping  into  the  valley  of  Aragua. 

There  are  two  telephone  companies  in  Caracas,  and 
the  service  is  cheaper  than  in  the  United  States.  The 
government  owns  all  the  telegraph  lines  throughout 
the  republic.  The  submarine  cables  connecting  Vene- 
zuela with  the  Antilles,  the  United  States,  and  Europe, 
respectively,  belong  to  foreign  companies  having  con- 
tracts with  the  Venezuelan  government.  The  city  is 
lighted  with  both  gas  and  electricity. 

Valencia,  the  second  city  of  Venezuela  in  point  of 
importance,  with  a  population  of  thirty  thousand,  was 
founded  in  1555,  twelve  years  before  Caracas.  It  is  two 


70 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


miles  from  Lake  Tacarigua;  and  has  a  temperature 
which,  though  warm,  is  nearly  always  equable  and 
comfortable.  It  is  well  provided  with  excellent  water 
brought  from  a  distance  through  pipes.  It  is  a  great 
commercial  center.  Many  business  houses  engaged  in 
the  exporting  and  importing  trade  of  Puerto  Cabello 
have  transferred  their  warehouses  to  Valencia,  leaving 


A  STREET    IN    VALENCIA. 


agents  at  the  port  to  receive  imported  merchandise  and 
to  ship  the  domestic  articles  sent  in  exchange  to  their 
foreign  correspondents. 

In  the  environs  of  Valencia  are  to  be  found  under 
cultivation  the  most  fertile  lands  of  the  country.  The 
layer  of  vegetable  soil  around  Lake  Tacarigua  is  very 
deep  and  productive,  so  that  the  use  of  the  plow  is 
barely  necessary  to  clear  the  weeds,  turn  the  soil,  and 
fit  it  for  modern  methods  of  cultivation. 


SOME   VENEZUELAN    CITIES.  71 

Puerto  Cabello,  perhaps  the  second  port  of  the  repub- 
lic, excepting  Maracaibo,  is  situated  on  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  about  forty-five  miles  from  Valencia  and  sixty-five 
miles  from  La  Guayra,  and  is  a  city  of  over  fifteen  thou- 
sand people.  Its  bay  is  calm  and  so  safe  that  the  dis- 
coverers gave  it  the  name  of  Puerto  Cabello  (literally 
Port  of  the  Hair),  meaning  that  vessels  were  so  safe 
against  the  dangers  of  wind  and  sea  that  a  hair  might 
be  considered  strong  enough  to  hold  them.  The  largest 
ocean  steamers  can  come  alongside  the  piers.  Puerto 
Cabello  is  connected  by  rail  with  Valencia  and  Caracas. 
The  city  has  some  handsome  buildings,  among  them  the 
custom-house,  the  city  hall,  the  theater,  the  hospital,  the 
railroad  depot,  two  fine  churches,  and  several  beautiful 
private  residences.  Its  climate  is  warm  and  healthy, 
and  the  sea-bathing  is  excellent. 

La  Guayra,  the  principal  seaport  of  the  republic,  on 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  was  founded  in  1588.  The  climate 
is  rather  warm.  The  view  of  the  town  from  the  sea  is 
beautiful ;  no  other  place  in  the  world,  perhaps,  pre- 
sents the  phenomenon  of  a  mountain  like  La  Silla, 
rising  perpendicularly  above  the  town  to  a  height  of 
over  ten  thousand  feet.  It  is  connected  with  the 
city  of  Caracas,  by  rail,  by  a  highroad,  arid  by  a 
mule-path.  An  excellent  description  of  this  city  is 
found  in  Charles  Kingsley's  charming  story,  "  West- 
ward Ho !  " 

About  a  mile  west  of  La  Guayra,  on  the  Caracas 
railroad,  is  the  town  of  Maiquetia,  a  health  resort 
which  affords  facilities  for  sea-bathing.  It  is  a  popular 
resort  for  residents  of  the  capital  who  need  a  change 
of  air  and  climate,  and  many  spend  long  periods  of 


72  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

recreation  here.  The  panorama  -from  the  sea  is  pic- 
turesque and  most  interesting,  by  reason  of  the  variety 
of  plants,  palms,  hills,  and  mountains  presented  to  the 
view. 

Near  to  Maiquetia  lies  the  town  of  Macuto,  also  a 
bathing  and  pleasure  resort.  Its  climate  affords  those 
suffering  with  lung  affections  the  best  temperature 
known  anywhere  in  South  America. 

Maracaibo,  capital  of  the  state  of  Zulia,  is  one  of  the 
most  important  and  progressive  cities  in  the  republic, 
with  a  population  of  over  thirty -five  thousand.  It  is 
situated  on  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Maracaibo  and 
was  founded  in  1571.  Its  harbor  is  extensive  and  safe, 
and  is  visited  daily  by  a  large  number  of  steam  and 
sailing  vessels,  that  carry  the  products  of  the  surround- 
ing districts  to  all  quarters  of  the  globe.  The  Red  "  D  " 
Line  Steamship  Company  of  New  York  has  a  steamer 
making  regular  trips  from  its  home  port  direct  to 
Maracaibo. 

In  a  valley  overlooked  by  high  mountains  lies  La 
Victoria,  capital  of  the  state  of  Miranda.  In  all  direc- 
tions, surrounding  the  city,  are  valuable  plantations 
of  coffee  and  sugar  cane,  which,  with  their  various 
tones  of  green,  give  it  a  handsome  setting.  The 
city  is  connected  by  the  Great  Railway  of  Venezuela 
with  Valencia  and  Caracas ;  and  its  importance  is 
thereby  increased,  as  it  is  the  natural  center  of  the 
valley  of  Aragua,  one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  of  the 
republic. 

The  city  of  Bolivar,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Bolivar, 
picturesquely  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Orinoco, 
seems,  at  the  first  glance,  to  sustain  itself  with  difficulty 


A   GLANCE   AT   THE   COUNTRY.  73 

on  a  rocky  hillside.  This  important  city  bore  for  many 
years  the  name  of  Angostura,  or  the  Narrows,  so-called 
because  opposite  it  the  Orinoco  becomes  very  narrow. 
It  is  a  city  that  will  become  a  great  commercial  empo- 
rium, for  it  commands  the  Orinoco  and  is  the  natural 
outlet  for  the  rich  agricultural  products  of  the  surround- 
ing territory. 

Other  cities  and  towns  of  importance  might  be  men- 
tioned, but  these  must  satisfy  us  for  the  present ;  and  we 
will  now  glance  at  the  open  country,  which  is  full  of 
interest  and  charm. 


CHAPTER  X. 
A   GLANCE  AT  THE   COUNTRY. 

VENEZUELA  is  about  twice  as  large  as  Texas.  It  is 
well  supplied  with  rivers  and  streams,  having  more 
than  a  thousand,  of  which  nearly  one-half  are  tribu- 
taries of  the  Orinoco.  Six  of  these  rivers  can  be  navi- 
gated by  large  steamers.  Only  three  rivers  in  the  world 
surpass  the  Orinoco  in  size  and  in  the  volume  of  water 
that  it  carries  into  the  sea.  Six  hundred  miles  back 
from  its  mouth  the  river  has  a  width  of  three  miles. 

The  republic  comprises  twenty-two  states,  five  territo- 
ries, one  federal  district,  and  two  agricultural  colonies. 
The  states  are  organized  and  governed  very  much  like 
those  of  our  own  country,  having  complete  independ- 
ence in  the  management  of  their  local  affairs.  A 
large  portion  of  the  country  is  still  in  an  undeveloped 
condition.  Little  progress  has  been  made  within  recent 


74 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


THE    BROAD   ORINOCO. 


years,  and  the  population  has  not  increased  to  any 
material  extent  in  the  last  half  century. 

It  has  a  coast  line  of  more  than  two  thousand  miles, 
on  which  are  situated  thirty-two  good  harbors  and  fifty 
bays.  About  one-third  of  the  entire  territory  is  fit  for 
agriculture,  one-half  is  given  over  to  pasture  land,  and 
the  remainder  is  covered  with  forest.  Most  of  the  land 
that  is  under  cultivation  lies  along  the  shore.  On  the 
grazing  land  in  the  interior  roam  vast  herds  of  cattle, 
which  are  numbered  by  millions. 

The  rivers  of  Venezuela  run  through  the  three  great 
zones  into  which  the  country  is  naturally  divided, — 
the  zone  of  agriculture,  the  pasture  zone,  and  the  virgin 
or  forest  zone.  These  three  sections  have  so  great  a 
variety  of  climates  that  almost  everything  can  be  cul- 
tivated to  advantage.  The  highland,  or  region  of  the 
Cordilleras,  enjoys  a  delightful  climate.  The  tops  of 


A   GLANCE   AT   THE   COUNTRY.  75 

the  mountains  are  covered  with  snow,  which,  besides 
adding  sublimity  to  the  landscape,  is  an  attraction  to 
European  immigrants  accustomed  to  a  temperate  climate. 

"  There  is  one  remarkable  fish  peculiar  to  the  Orinoco 
valley.  It  is  a  fierce  little  fellow  called  the  carib, 
because  of  its  resemblance  to  a  savage  tribe  of  Indians 
by  that  name.  It  is  about  the  size-  of  our  northern 
perch,  but  its  teeth  will  penetrate  a  coat  of  mail,  and 
natives  who  attempt  to  ford  or  bathe  in  the  streams  are 
often  killed  by  it.  The  caribs  are  caught  in  a  curious 
way  —  by  crushing  the  leaves  of  the  barbaco,  a  highly 
narcotic  plant,  and  then  strewing  them  in  the  water. 
The  juice  stupefies  the  fish,  although  it  does  not  injure 
them,  and  as  they  float  about  upon  the  surface  the 
Indians  pick  them  out  with  their  hands." 

The  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco  contain  also  the  elec- 
tric eel.  It  is  about  the  size  and  weight  of  the  ordinary 
fresh-water  variety.  If  touched,  it  will  give  a  shock 
like  a  galvanic  battery,  often  so  violent  that  its  victims 
have  been  temporarily  paralyzed,  and,  losing  control  of 
their  muscles,  have  been  drowned.  Horses  and  cattle 
suffer  similarly,  so  that  the  herdsmen  are  careful  to 
keep  their  animals  out  of  streams  that  are  known 
to  be  haunted  by  this  curious  creature.  It  is  related 
that  during  one  of  the  early  wars  in  Venezuela,  an 
entire  army  was  almost  disabled  by  running  into  a 
school  of  electric  eels  while  fording  a  stream. 

"  To  a  lover  of  nature,  the  trip  from  Caracas  to  the 
Orinoco  valley  is  full  of  fascination,  for  the  route  leads 
through  a  region  abounding  with  rare  and  curious  forms 
of  vegetable  and  animal  life.  In  these  wild  mountain 
lands  are  many  rare  plants,  flowers,  and  trees,  birds 


76  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

of  gorgeous  plumage,  and   animals  and  fish  unknown 
to  other  latitudes." 

The  largest  of  the  Venezuelan  lakes  is  Lake  Mara- 
caibo,  which  covers  an  area  over  125  miles  in  length 
by  about  80  miles  in  breadth,  and  is  surrounded  by 
mountain  ranges.  The  lake  receives  the  waters  of 
more  than  500  rivers  and  rivulets,  and  communicates 
with  the  sea  through  13  outlets,  which  allow  the  dis- 
charge of  a  large  quantity  of  water  from  the  lake,  while 
permitting  the  inrush  of  salt  water  with  the  tides  and 
the  winds.  By  reason  of  this  inrush  into  the  lake,  the 
water  is  brackish  from  its  entrance  to  the  city  of  Mara- 

caibo,  and  some- 
times farther  in. 
The  water  of  the 
rest  of  the  lake 
is  fresh,  and,  al- 
though not  so 
sweet  as  river 
water,  is  used 
for  domestic  and 
for  drinking  pur- 
poses. 

From  the  At- 
lantic to  the 
Andes  there  is 
an  area  as  large 
as  the  valley  of 
the  Mississippi 
and  similar  in  configuration,  capable  of  producing  im- 
mense crops  of  nearly  everything  the  world  feeds  on, 
and  affording  grazing  ground  for  millions  of  cattle. 


THE  OVERSEER   OF  A   RANCH. 


A   GLANCE   AT   THE   COUNTRY.  77 

From  the  foothills  of  the  mountains  to  the  sea,  2000 
miles  distant,  are  great  plains,  or  llanos,  like  those  of 
Iowa  and  Illinois,  almost  entirely  destitute  of  timber 
except  along  the  courses  of  the  rivers,  where  valuable 
trees  are  found. 

Concerning  the  interesting  life  of  the  llaneros,  or 
herdsmen  who  occupy  these  great  plains,  a  lifelong 
resident  writes  as  follows :  — 

"  Divesting  myself,  therefore,  of  all  such  superfluities 
as  coat,  cravat,  and  shoes,  I  adopted  the  less  cumbrous 
attire  of  the  llaneros,  consisting  mainly  of  breeches 
tightly  buttoned  at  the  knee,  and  a  loose  shirt,  usually 
of  a  bright  checkered  pattern.  Shoes  are  altogether  dis- 
pensed with  in  a  country  like  the  llanos,  subject  to  drench- 
ing rains,  and  covered  with  mud  during  a  great  portion 
of  the  year.  .  .  .  The  leg,  however,  is  well  protected 
from  the  thorns  and  cutting  grass  of  the  savannas  by  a 
neat  legging  made  of  buffskin,  tightly  buttoned  down 
the  calf  by  knobs  or  studs  of  highly  polished  silver. 

"  Another  characteristic  article  of  dress,  and  one  in 
which  the  wearers  take  great  pride,  is  the  linen  check- 
ered handkerchief  loosely  worn  around  the  head.  Its 
object  is  ostensibly  to  protect  it  from  the  intensity  of 
the  sun's  rays ;  but  the  constant  habit  of  wearing  it  has 
rendered  the  handkerchief  as  indispensable  a  headdress 
to  the  llaneros  as  is  the  cravat  to  the  neck  of  the  city 
gentleman." 

Few  people  in  the  world  are  better  riders  than  the 
llaneros  of  Venezuela,  if  we  except  perhaps  the  gauchos 
of  the  Argentine  Republic,  who  equal  their  dexterity  in 
the  wonderful  feats  of  horsemanship  to  which  their  occu- 
pations in  the  field  inure  them  from  childhood.  Their 


78  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

horses,  moreover,  are  so  well  trained  to  the  various 
evolutions  of  their  occupation  that  animal  and  rider 
seem  to  be  parts  of  a  common  whole. 

The  life  of  the  llanero,  like  that  of  the  gaucho,  his 
prototype,  is  wonderfully  interesting,  and  resembles  in 
many  respects  that  of  others  who  have  their  abode  in 
the  midst  of  extensive  plains.  They  have  been  aptly 
styled  the  Cossacks  and  the  Arabs  of  the  new  world, 
and  with  both  of  these  tribes  they  have  many  points 
in  common,  though  they  more  especially  resemble  the 
Arabs. 

"  Born  in  a  rude  hut,  the  infant  llanero  receives  little 
attention,  but  is  left  to  swing  from  the  roof  in  a  bullock's 
hide,  the  corners  of  which  are  drawn  toward  each  other 
by  four  strips  of  hide.  As  soon  as  he  walks,  his  infantile 
amusements  are  those  which  prepare  him  for  the  occu- 
pations of  his  future  life.  With  a  lasso  made  of  twine 
he  tries  to  catch  little  birds  or  the  dogs,  as  they  walk 
in  and  out  of  the  hut.  By  the  time  he  is  four  years  old 
he  is  on  horseback,  and  immediately  becomes  useful  by 
assisting  to  drive  the  cattle  into  the  corral. 

"  As  he  grows  older  and  stronger,  a  more  manly  amuse- 
ment is  afforded  him  with  the  breaking  in  of  a  wild  colt. 
Here  commences  what  we  may  term  the  public  life  of 
the  llanero.  From  this  moment  all  his  endeavor  and 
ambition  will  be  to  rival  his  companions  in  the  display 
of  physical  force,  which  he  shows  to  an  admirable  de- 
gree when,  armed  with  his  tough  lasso,  he  pursues  the 
wild  animals  of  his  domain." 

Next  to  the  horse,  the  llanero  esteems  those  weapons 
which  give  him  a  superiority  over  his  fellow-creatures. 
These  consist  of  a  lance,  a  blunderbuss,  and  a  fine  sword. 


A   GLANCE  AT   THE   COUNTRY.  79 

If  he  is  unprovided  with  any  of  these,  he  considers 
himself  a  miserable  and  degraded  being,  and  he  will  en- 
deavor to  gratify  this  favorite  vanity  even  at  the  risk  of 
his  life. 

Humboldt,  the  great  naturalist,  visited  Venezuela  and 
called  attention  to  many  of  its  curiosities.  He  gave  the 
following  description  of  the  "cow  tree"  and  its  uses:  — 

"  When  incisions  are  made  in  the  trunk  of  this  tree, 
it  yields  abundance  of  a  glutinous  milk,  tolerably  thick, 
devoid  of  all  acridity,  and  of  an  agreeable  and  balmy 
smell.  It  was  offered  to  us  in  the  shell  of  a  calabash. 
We  drank  considerable  quantities  of  it  in  the  evening 
before  we  went  to  bed,  and  very  early  in  the  morning, 
without  feeling  the  least  injurious  effect.  The  glutinous 
character  of  this  milk  alone  renders  it  a  little  disagreea- 
ble. The  negroes  and  the  free  people  who  work  in 
the  plantations  drink  it,  dipping  into  it  their  bread  of 
maize  or  cassava. 

"  It  is  at  the  rising  of  the  sun  that  this  vegetable  foun- 
tain is  most  abundant.  The  negroes  and  natives  are 
then  seen  hastening  from  all  quarters,  furnished  with 
large  bowls  to  receive  the  milk,  which  grows  yellow  and 
thickens  at  its  surface.  Some  empty  their  bowls  under 
the  tree  itself,  while  others  carry  the  juice  home  to  their 
children." 

Horses  and  oxen,  buoyant  with  life  and  enjoyment, 
roam  over  and  crop  the  plains.  The  luxuriant  grass 
hides  the  beautiful  spotted  jaguar,  who,  lurking  in  safe 
concealment  and  carefully  measuring  the  extent  of  his 
leap,  springs,  like  the  Asiatic  tiger,  upon  his  passing 
prey.  At  times,  according  to  the  account  of  the  natives, 
the  humid  clay  on  the  banks  of  a  morass  is  seen  to 


80 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


rise  slowly  in  broad  flakes.  Accompanied  by  a  violent 
noise,  as  on  the  eruption  of  a  small  mud  volcano,  the 
upheaved  earth  is  hurled  high  into  the  air.  Those  who 

.^,r  are  familiar 
with  the  phe- 
nomenon fly 
from  it ;  for  a 
colossal  water- 
snake,  or  a 
mailed  and 
scaly  crocodile, 
awakened  from 
its  trance  by 
the  first  fall  of 
rain,  is  about 
to  burst  from 
its  tomb. 

Among  the  curiosities  of  this  country  is  the  celebrated 
Guacharo  Cave,  the  most  remarkable  of  its  kind  in  the 
world.  The  cave  is  situated  about  three  thousand  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  has  several  tunnels  and 
three  main  galleries.  One  of  these  galleries,  about 
six  thousand  feet  in  length,  is  inhabited  by  guacharo 
birds,  a  species  of  sea  gull ;  another  gallery,  about  six 
hundred  feet  long,  through  which  runs  a  beautiful  brook, 
contains  no  animals.  The  guacharo  feeds  on  certain 
fruits,  called  by  the  natives  mataca  and  covadonga ;  and 
it  is  said  that  the  seeds  of  these  fruits,  after  having 
undergone  the  process  of  digestion  by  the  birds,  acquire 
great  medicinal  properties.  The  natives  preserve  the 
fat  of  the  young  birds  and  make  from  it  an  excellent 
quality  of  lard. 


THE  JAGUAR. 


LIFE    IN   VENEZUELA.  81 

The  whole  country  is  unique  in  its  character  and  char- 
acteristics, and  is  full  of  an  ever  increasing  interest  to 
all  who  visit  or  study  it. 


CHAPTER  XL 

LIFE   IN  VENEZUELA. 

THE  people  of  Venezuela,  like  the  southern  peoples 
in  general,  take  life  as  easily  as  possible ;  and  a  man 
who  walks  with  vigorous  step  or  displays  quickness  of 
movement  of  any  sort  may  at  once  be  set  down  as  a 
foreigner,  for  anything  of  this  sort  is  beneath  the 
dignity  of  the  natives. 

The  laboring  classes  are  still  strongly  prejudiced 
against  innovations  of  every  order,  and  particularly 
against  machines  and  labor-saving  appliances.  Heavy 
loads  are  sometimes  carried  on  the  head,  and  furniture 
and  trunks  are  transported  for  miles  in  this  way.  If 
they  are  too  heavy  for  one  person,  assistance  is  of  course 
obtained. 

Many  native  farmers  still  use  the  wooden  plow  with 
one  handle,  as  in  the  earlier  times,  and  are  averse  to 
the  double-handled  steel  plow,  though  these  have  been 
introduced  on  some  of  the  farms  adjacent  to  the  cities. 
General  Guzman  Blanco,  one  of  their  greatest  states- 
men, made  several  attempts  to  introduce  labor-saving 
machinery  and  modern  methods,  but  all  to  little 
purpose. 


82  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

In  a  recent  article  in  Harper's  Magazine,  a  lady 
wrote:  "When  a  new  servant  is  engaged,  the  employer 
must  instruct  her  to  the  full  extent  of  her  duties  on 
the  first  day.  That  is  the  sample  of  all  days;  and 
thereafter  she  will  do  exactly  what  she  did  then,  and 


no  more." 


A   RUDE    PLOW. 


An  American  relates  the  following  experience,  which 
is,  perhaps,  not  typical  of  servants  in  general:  "The 
morning  after  our  arrival  at  the  hotel  in  Caracas  I  called 
for  a  glass  of  milk  while  dressing.  On  every  subse- 
quent morning  during  our  stay  a  glass  of  milk  was 
brought  me  at  precisely  the  same  hour,  without  in- 
structions ;  and  although  the  servant  was  told  several 
times  that  it  was  not  wanted,  she  did  not  appear  to 
understand,  and  continued  to  bring  it  just  the  same. 

"In  the  hotel  were  electric  bells.  The  first  day  I 
rang  for  something,  and  a  certain  boy  answered  the 


LIFE    IN   VENEZUELA.  83 

summons.  The  next  morning  I  rang  again  and  again, 
and  no  one  responded.  Finally,  I  went  into  the  dining 
room  and  found  there  half  a  dozen  servants. 

"'Didn't  you  hear  my  bell  ring?  '  I  asked. 

"'Yes,  sir,'  was  the  reply. 

"'Then  why  didn't  you  answer  it?' 

"'The  boy  that  answers  your  excellency's  bell  has 
gone  to  market  with  the  manager.' 

"'But  you  knew  he  was  not  here,  and  you  should 
have  come  in  his  place.' 

"'No,  senor;  it  is  his  occupation  to  answer  your 
bell.  I  answer  the  bell  of  the  gentleman  in  the  next 
room.' 

"And  this  provoking  stubbornness  lasted  longer  than 
my  indignation.  As  long  as  I  remained  in  that  hotel 
my  bell  was  only  answered  by  that  one  particular  boy. 
If  he  was  not  in,  I  could  ring  for  an  hour  without 
receiving  a  response,  although  the  house  was  full  of 
other  idle  servants." 

Another  traveler  tells  his  story  thus:  "In  one  of 
the  houses  where  I  was  a  guest,  the  gentleman  who 
cleaned  the  boots  always  came  into  my  room  with  his 
hat  on  and  a  cigar  in  his  mouth,  and  another  gentle- 
man, whom  I  had  engaged  to  assist  Juan,  left  me  the 
day  after  his  arrival  on  being  refused  the  custody  of 
my  keys  and  purse,  which  he  candidly  stated  was  the 
only  duty  he  felt  equal  to.  On  my  sitting  down  to  play 
chess  with  the  wife  of  the  president  of  one  of  the  states, 
half  a  dozen  female  servants,  of  every  shade,  from  tawny 
twilight  to  black  night,  surrounded  the  table  and  began 
to  watch  the  game.  The  first  time  I  went  to  a  tailor 
I  was  accompanied  by  a  Creole  friend,  who  undertook 


84  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

to  show  me  the  best  place.  We  had  to  wait  some 
time  before  the  gentleman  of  the  shop  appeared.  When 
he  did,  he  came  in  with  the  inevitable  cigar  in  his 
mouth.  He  raised  his  hat  politely  to  my  friend,  walked 
straight  up  to  me,  shook  hands,  and  asked  me  how  I 
did.  He  then  sat  down  on  the  counter,  put  various 
questions  to  me  regarding  my  coming  to  Venezuela, 
talked  on  general  subjects,  and,  at  the  end  of  a  quarter 
of  an  hour,  intimated  that  he  was  ready  to  oblige  me  if 
I  wanted  a  coat.  This  tailor  was  an  officer  in  the  army, 
and  coming  in  on  one  occasion  to  measure  a  friend  of 
mine  wore  his  uniform  and  spurs." 

Most  of  the  laundry  work  in  the  country  is  done  by 
women  on  the  banks  of  streams,  to  which  they  carry 
the  clothing  in  baskets  on  top  of  their  heads.  The 
washing  is  done  in  the  cold,  running  water.  After 
a  vigorous  pounding  upon  the  rocks,  the  clothing  is 
spread  out  on  the  grass  to  dry.  In  the  cities  most  of 
the  houses  have  a  tank  of  water  in  the  back  yard,  made 
of  stones  and  cement.  In  this  the  clothes  are  washed, 
and  then  they  are  spread  to  dry  on  a  pile  of  stones. 
Washboards,  clothespins,  and  clotheslines  are  not  pop- 
ular in  Venezuela  and  the  native  women  cannot  be 
induced  to  use  them.  Washing  done  by  hand  is  greatly 
preferred. 

The  inhabitants  of  Venezuela,  though  reputed  among 
the  most  warlike  peoples  of  America,  are  really  very 
sober  and  industrious.  Crime  is  of  rare  occurrence. 
Not  a  single  case  is  recalled  of  any  one  being  stopped 
on  the  public  highway,  even  when  carrying  large  sums 
of  money. 

A  story  is  still  told,  as  something  laughable,  of  an 


LIFE    IN   VENEZUELA. 


85 


Englishman,  the  agent  of  a  London  firm,  who,  on  his 
arrival  at  the  port  of  La  Guayra  in  charge  of  $100,000 
in  specie  that  he  had  brought  with  him  to  invest,  asked 
the  English  consul  to  obtain  from  the  military  author- 
ities an  escort  to  take  him  to  Caracas  and  to  guarantee 
his  treasure  against  risks.  The  English  consul,  who 
had  long  been  a  resident  of  the  country,  laughed  in  his 


NATIVE   HUTS    IN   VENEZUELA. 


countryman's  face,  and,  calling  upon  the  first  truckman 
that  passed,  gave  him  an  order  to  take  the  boxes  of  specie 
to  Caracas  without  any  other  precaution  than  obtaining 
the  driver's  name  and  the  number  of  his  wagon.  The 
next  day  the  English  agent  received  his  boxes  safe  and 
sound,  and  exclaimed,  "Wonderful  country!" 

The  Venezuelan  government  is  beginning  to  realize 
that   the  only  way  to  change   the   existing   order   of 


86  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

things,  and  to  get  out  of  the  country  that  which  it  has 
to  give,  is  to  introduce  more  foreign  enterprise  by  an 
increase  of  its  foreign  population.  Congress  has  just 
passed  a  law  concerning  immigration,  which  is  the 
most  liberal  the  country  has  ever  had.  The  govern- 
ment offers  immigrants  the  following  inducements: 
It  pays  their  passage,  expenses  of  landing,  board,  and 
lodging  during  the  first  fifteen  days  after  arrival;  and 
allows  the  entrance,  free  of  duty,  of  the  immigrant's 
wardrobe,  his  domestic  utensils  and  his  machines,  tools, 
or  the  instruments  of  his  profession.  It  pays  the  ex- 
penses of  his  transportation  to  any  one  of  the  govern- 
ment's agricultural  settlements ;  it  gives  each  immigrant 
the  title  to  a  section  of  the  government  waste  lands ; 
and  gives  also  the  right  to  purchase,  for  one-half  its 
market  value,  any  amount  of  waste  land  he  may  desire. 

The  roads  in  Venezuela,  away  from  the  cities,  are 
very  poor.  Nine-tenths  of  the  transportation  from 
the  interior  is  done  on  the  backs  of  donkeys.  These 
are  patient  little  fellows  and  are  the  strongest  beasts 
of  burden  in  the  world,  in  proportion  to  their  size. 
Foreign  capitalists,  together  with  some  native  ones, 
have  thus  far  constructed  eight  short  lines  of  railroad, 
and  are  projecting  other  lines,  which  will  be  built  in 
the  near  future. 

The  Venezuelan  boundary  was  in  dispute  for  a  long 
time.  In  1841  the  Dutch  ceded  to  Great  Britain  the 
colony  which  is  now  called  British  Guiana.  Venezuela 
was  then  a  part  of  the  Spanish  colony  of  New  Guiana. 
The  Dutch,  on  handing  over  the  colony  to  Great 
Britain,  laid  claim  to  a  large  tract  of  land  which  was 
also  claimed  by  Spain ;  and  disputes  over  the  boundary 


LIFE    IN   VENEZUELA.  87 

started  at  once.  The  land  claimed  by  England  was 
about  one-third  of  the  delta  territory  and  one-half  of 
the  Yuruari  territory.  Valuable  gold  mines  found  in 
the  disputed  territory  made  the  matter  more  difficult 
to  settle. 

The  question  dragged  along  until  1896,  when  the 
Venezuelan  government,  fearing  that  Great  Britain 
would  assert  her  claim  by  force,  asked  the  United 
States  to  intervene.  Great  Britain  at  first  refused  to 
submit  the  whole  territory  in  dispute  to  arbitration, 
but  finally  consented  to  do  so,  after  the  United  States 
asserted  her  right,  under  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  to  resist 
forcibly  any  attempt  by  a  European  power  to  extend  its 
dominion  over  any  part  of  American  territory. 

The  Board  of  Arbitration  met  at  Paris  and  arrived  at 
a  decision  which,  by  the  world  in  general,  is  considered 
eminently  fair.  It  decided  that  Great  Britain  had  a 
right  to  nearly  all  the  land  claimed  by  Venezuela,  and 
gave  the  republic  only  a  very  small  portion  of  the  dis- 
puted territory;  but,  in  addition,  allowed  it  to  keep  all 
the  land  at  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.  This  gives  Vene- 
zuela undisputed  possession  of  both  banks  of  the  river. 

During  the  year  1899  Venezuela  had  one  of  its  usual 
petty  revolutions.  President  Andrade  was  put  to 
flight,  and  General  Castro,  who  was  fighting  to  place 
his  friend  Hernandez  in  power,  thought  it  for  the  best 
interests  of  the  republic  that  he  assume  the  office  him- 
self. These  revolutions  are  so  frequent  in  the  South 
American  republics,  that  lack  of  confidence  causes 
millions  of  dollars  to  be  withheld  by  Northern  and 
European  capitalists,  and  the  development  of  the 
several  countries  is  greatly  retarded. 


88  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

INDUSTRIES   OF  VENEZUELA. 

AGRICULTURE  and  cattle-breeding  are  the  two  in- 
dustries that  form  the  most  solid  base  for  the  wealth 
of  Venezuela,  although  it  has  other  industrial  resources 
and  rich  mines.  Agriculture  and  stock-breeding  sus- 
tain the  foreign  commerce  of  the  republic  and  attract 
the  immigration  which  already  begins  to  flow  in,  and 
which  the  government  protects  by  special  laws.  The 
physical  features  of  the  country,  its  climate,  and  the 
richness  of  its  soil  afford  conditions  extremely  favorable 
to  these  two  lines  of  industry. 

As  the  agricultural  interests  may  be  said  to  center  in 
the  cultivation  of  coffee  and  cocoa,  we  must  give  these 
two  industries  special  attention.  The  coffee  plant  was 
introduced  into  Venezuela  about  the  year  1784,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Caracas,  from  which  place  the  seed  was 
secured  for  planting  in  the  rest  of  the  country.  To-day 
it  constitutes  the  principal  wealth  of  the  republic. 

Referring  to  the  cultivation  of  this  plant,  a  pamphlet 
entitled  "The  United  States  of  Venezuela  in  1893," 
published  by  order  of  the  government,  says :  — 

"The  best  coffee  is  grown  in  the  temperate  and  the 
lower  part  of  the  torrid  zones,  where  the  vegetation  is 
refreshed  throughout  the  whole  year  by  dense  and  cool 
morning  fogs.  Experience  has  proved  that  the  coffee 
tree  thrives  best  under  the  shade  of  other  large  trees. 
For  this  purpose,  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  country, 
the  banana  is  used ;  in  the  temperate  belt  the  principal 
shade  tree  is  the  "bucare";  and  in  the  colder  region 


INDUSTRIES   OF   VENEZUELA. 


89 


the  coffee  tree  is  sheltered  by  trees  of  various  species. 
Of  all  these  shade  trees  the  bucare  is  the  best,  as  it 
makes  a  high,  clear  trunk  with  a  rather  light  crown, 
and  sheds  its  leaves  in  December  and  January,  so  that 
the  coffee  tree  gets  an  abundance  of  air  and  light 
precisely  in  the  time  just  before  flowering. 


DRYING  COFFEE. 


"  The  coffee  tree  gives  a  first  crop  when  four  to  five 
years  old,  crop  time  beginning  generally  in  September 
or  October.  The  ripe  coffee  berries  look  very  much 
like  small  cherries,  and  grow  in  clusters  close  to  the 
bases  of  the  leaf  stalks.  After  being  picked,  they  are 
thrown  into  the  coffee  pulper,  in  order  to  take  off  the 
fleshy  outer  part.  This  is  done  by  pushing  the  fruits 


90  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

through  a  wedge-shaped  slit  against  a  rotary  cylinder 
sheathed  with  a  plate  of  copper  which  has  a  great  num- 
ber of  little  blunt  bosses.  After  this  manipulation  the 
berries  are  left  for  about  twenty-four  hours  in  a  brick- 
work tank  with  water,  where  the  first  fermentation 
helps  to  wash  them  more  perfectly,  and  then  they  are 
spread  out  to  dry  in  a  large  court,  either  paved  with 
bricks  or  made  very  smooth  with  mortar.  When  per- 
fectly dry,  they  are  taken  to  the  trilla,  which  consists 
of  a  heavy  wood  or  stone  wheel,  moved  either  by  water 
power  or  animal  force,  and  running  in  a  circular  bed  or 
channel  in  which  the  parchment-like  covering  of  the 
grains  is  crushed  and  broken,  so  that  the  clean  grains 
can  afterward  be  separated  from  the  chaff  by  means  of 
the  fanning  machine." 

In  first-class  coffee  the  grains  ought  to  be  of  equal 
size,  light  green  in  color,  and  have  a  special  and  pleas- 
ant aroma ;  they  should,  moreover,  be  all  the  same  color 
after  being  roasted.  All  these  properties  are  combined 
in  coffee  from  Venezuela,  which  unquestionably  belongs 
to  the  very  best  kind  known  to  commerce. 

The  total  production  at  the  present  time  (1901)  is 
estimated  to  be  over  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  million 
pounds.  The  greater  part  of  this  product  is  shipped 
to  Germany  and  France,  and  a  considerable  quantity 
to  the  United  States.  In  earlier  times  much  of  the 
coffee  was  shipped  to  Europe  by  the  way  of  the  United 
States,  but  in  these  days  shipment  is  made  direct,  and 
hence  a  much  smaller  amount  of  Venezuelan  coffee 
enters  our  ports  than  formerly. 

Cocoa,  or,  as  it  is  usually  called  in  South  America, 
"cacao,"  the  berry  from  which  the  chocolate  of  com- 


INDUSTRIES  OF  VENEZUELA. 


91 


merce  is  made,  is  the  seed  of  a  tree  indigenous  to  sev- 
eral countries  in  tropical  America.  The  tree  grows 
to  an  average  height  of  eighteen  feet,  with  a  trunk 
from  five  to  eight  inches  in  diameter.  It  yields  profit- 
ably for  nearly  forty  years. 

A  cacao  plantation  is  laid  out  in  about  the  same 
manner  as  an  apple  orchard.  No  particular  preparation 
of  the  soil  is  neces- 


sary, 


and  no  fertil- 


THE   CACAO    BERRY. 


izer  is  applied. 
One  acre  of  land 
will  sustain  about 
150  trees,  which 
must  be  protected 
from  the  sun  by 
shade  trees. 

The  pamphlet  quoted 
above  says  of  cacao:  "The  fruits 
are  oval-shaped,  with  longitudinal 
ribs,  and  similar  in  appearance  to 
muskmelons.  Some  are  of  a  yel- 
lowish color,  but  generally  they  assume  a  dark  reddish 
hue  on  ripening.  Each  fruit  contains  some  sixty  or 
eighty  seeds  embedded  in  a  slimy  pulp.  After  being 
taken  out  they  are  either  cleaned  and  gradually  dried,  or 
previously  spread  out  on  large  courtyards  covered  with 
a  kind  of  red  earth  or  brick  dust,  which  adheres  to  the 
seeds  and  gives  them  their  red  color.  It  is  generally 
believed  that  cacao  treated  in  this  manner  keeps  longer 
and  is  much  less  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  insects. 

"  In  properly  prepared  cacao  the  parchment-like  seed 
coat  will  burst  easily  when  the  grain  is  broken,  and 


92  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

the  interior,  consisting  of  the  seed  leaves,  is  of  a  uni- 
form, dark-brown  color  without  any  whitish  spots. 
There  are  several  varieties  of  cacao  in  cultivation,  two 
principal  ones  being  the  Trinidad  cacao  and  the  native 
cacao.  The  former  is  more  vigorous,  yields  larger  crops, 
and  resists  better  any  unfavorable  weather,  as  well  as 
the  attacks  of  insects.  But  the  grains  are  smaller, 
harder,  and  more  flattened  than  those  of  the  native  cacao, 
and  have,  moreover,  a  more  bitter  taste." 

Sugar  cane  stands  next  in  rank  in  the  agricultural 
wealth  of  Venezuela,  where  four  kinds  of  cane  are 
grown.  Up  to  a  short  time  ago,  the  importation  of 
sugar  into  the  republic  was  prohibited ;  but  it  may  now 
be  introduced  by  paying  a  heavy  duty.  Sugar  is  manu- 
factured in  the  country  for  domestic  consumption,  and 
in  the  refineries,  which  have  recently  been  erected,  a 
good  quality  of  granulated  sugar  is  made. 

The  cocoanut  is  also  cultivated  in  Venezuela;  there 
are  many  large  plantations  of  this  nut,  which  is  con- 
sumed in  the  country  and  largely  exported.  In  Barce- 
lona, Maracaibo,  and  Cumana  there  are  mills  for 
extracting  the  oil  from  the  nut,  and  this  oil  forms 
the  basis  of  considerable  domestic  trade.  Cocoanuts 
are  exported  from  Venezuela  to  the  Antilles  and  the 
United  States. 

All  kinds  of  tropical  fruits  and  vegetables  grow  in 
the  country.  Among  the  fiber  plants  is  the  pita  hemp, 
whose  fibers  at  times  reach  a  length  of  over  three  feet, 
and  are  used  for  making  bags,  hammocks,  and  similar 
articles. 

In  the  forest  zone,  outside  of  the  innumerable  hard- 
woods and  dyewoods,  there  exists  an  immense  natu- 


INDUSTRIES   OF  VENEZUELA.  93 

ral  wealth  which  needs  no  cultivation.     It  consists  of 
the  tonka  bean,  copaiba,  vanilla,  sarsaparilla,  quinine, 


COFFEE    WASHING. 


rubber,  resinous  balsams,  and  other  medicinal  plants. 
With  regard  to  the  abundance  of  hard  wood,  some 
idea  may  be  formed  when  one  is  reminded  that  at  the 


94  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

National  Exhibition  held  in  Caracas,  in  1883,  woods  of 
over  six  hundred  species  were  exhibited. 

Venezuela  is  very  rich  in  mineral  deposits.  The 
richest  mines  are  supposed  to  be  south  of  the  Orinoco, 
but  there  are  successful  mines  in  other  portions  of  the 
republic,  producing  iron,  copper,  gold,  silver,  lead, 
coal,  asphaltum,  and  petroleum.  Some  of  the  best  ores 
are  closely  adjacent  to  the  coast. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  no 
country  of  South  America  possesses  greater  advantages 
than  Venezuela  for  the  raising  of  cattle  and  domestic 
animals  of  all  kinds.  The  grazing  region,  made  up  of 
immense  fertile  meadows,  extends  from  the  interior  of 
the  old  province  of  Guiana  to  the  borders  of  Colombia. 

The  delta  territory  and  the  islands  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  great  Orinoco  River  are  inviting  colonizers  to  bring 
their  enterprises,  and  are  promising  handsome  returns 
to  the  promoters. 

There  are  in  Venezuela  numerous  industries,  produc- 
ing many  articles  of  food,  clothing,  and  other  necessities 
of  civilized  life,  from  grain  mills  to  the  manufacture 
of  pianos  and  mirrors.  Steam  is  generally  employed  as 
the  motive  power,  and  industrial  progress  seems  likely 
to  be  much  more  rapid  in  the  future  than  in  the  past. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
HISTORICAL   SKETCH  OF   ECUADOR. 

ECUADOR  is  traversed  by  the  equator,  from  which  it 
takes  its  name.     It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Colom- 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF    ECUADOR.  95 

bia,  on  the  east  by  Brazil,  on  the  south  by  Peru,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Its  area  cannot  be 
stated  with  any  degree  of  accuracy,  for  large  districts 
along  the  frontiers  are  claimed  equally  by  Ecuador  and 
by  the  neighboring  powers,  and  even  within  the  limits 
of  undisputed  possession,  no  systematic  survey  has  ever 
been  made. 

The  population  was  recently  stated  at  1,108,082,  and 
this  estimate  did  not  include  200,000  "  wild "  Indians. 
An  official  estimate  for  the  same  year  makes  the  popula- 
tion only  881,943,  exclusive  of  150,000  "wild"  Indians, 
and  even  this  latter  estimate  is  probably  too  high. 

The  origin  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Quitos,  the  earliest 
Indian  tribe  in  Ecuador,  is  lost  in  the  obscurity  of  remote 
antiquity.  They  and  their  successors,  the  Caras,  who 
subdued  the  country  early  in  the  Christian  era,  were 
worshipers  of  the  sun  and  moon,  to  which  they  raised 
stone  temples  that,  even  in  their  ruins,  are  among  the 
marvels  of  the  world.  For  centuries  the  Caras  rulers 
maintained  a  state  of  peace,  and  their  dominions  attained 
a  comparatively  high  degree  of  civilization.  But  when 
they  became  engaged  in  quarrels  with  their  neighbors, 
they  proved  an  easy  prey  to  the  powerful  Incas  of  the 
South,  and  their  ancient  dynasty  fell  to  pieces.  Their 
heroic  struggles  are  worthy  of  comparison  with  the 
most  famous  battle-fields  of  history ;  but  at  last  their 
venerable  kingdom  was  reduced  to  a  mere  province  of 
the  Inca  sovereigns.  This  event  happened  toward  the 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  their  capital,  Quito, 
fell  into  the  hands  of  their  southern  foes. 

Capa,  the  Inca  chief,  inflicted  a  decisive  defeat  on 
the  Quitonians,  and  secured  his  position  by  marrying 


96  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Pacha,  the  daughter  of  the  late  ruler.     By  his  will  the 
conqueror  left  the  kingdom  of  Quito  to  Atahualpa,  his 


A    NATIVE   OF    ECUADOR. 


son  by  this  alliance,  while  the  Peruvian   throne  was 
assigned  to  an  older  son  named  Huascar. 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF   ECUADOR.  97 

War  broke  out  between  the  two  kingdoms,  owing  to 
Huascar's  pretensions  to  supremacy  over  his  brother.  It 
ended  in  the  defeat  and  imprisonment  of  the  pretender 
and  the  establishment  of  Atahualpa  as  master  of  both 
Quito  and  Peru.  The  fortunate  monarch,  however, 
had  not  long  to  enjoy  his  success,  for  Pizarro  and  his 
Spaniards  were  already  at  the  door,  and  by  1533  the 
fate  of  the  country  was  sealed. 

It  has  been  well  said  that  "  no  more  picturesque  scene 
in  history  can  be  pointed  out  than  the  famous  meeting 
of  this  monarch  with  Francisco  Pizarro,  on  the  plaza 
of  Cajamarca  on  November  16, 1532.  There  the  fate  of 
this  beautiful  land  was  decided,  and  the  conqueror  dic- 
tated the  division  of  the  spoil.  Within  two  years,  on 
December  6,  1534,  after  the  tragic  and  treacherous 
death  of  Atahualpa,  the  Spanish  general,  Sebastian  Ben- 
alcazar,  entered  the  city  of  Quito  with  great  ceremony 
and  solemnly  took  possession  of  it  and  the  entire  king- 
dom in  the  name  of  his  Majesty  Charles  V.  and  his  suc- 
cessors on  the  Spanish  throne.  But  it  was  not  until 
May  24,  1822,  three  centuries  later,  that  the  battle-field 
of  Pichincha  settled  forever  the  question  of  the  right 
of  Spain  to  misgovern  this  land  of  the  sun,  and  at  last 
made  possible  the  republic  of  Ecuador." 

As  soon  as  the  confusion  and  rivalries  of  the  first 
occupation  were  suppressed,  the  recent  kingdom  of 
Quito  was  made  a  presidency  of  the  Spanish  viceroy- 
alty  of  Peru,  and  no  change  of  importance  took  place 
till  1710.  In  that  year  it  was  attached  to  the  viceroy- 
alty  of  Santa  Fd ;  but  it  was  restored  to  Peru  in  1722. 
When,  toward  the  close  of  the  century,  the  desire  for 
independence  began  to  manifest  itself  throughout  the 


98  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Spanish  colonies  of  South  America,  Quito  dii  not 
remain  altogether  indifferent. 

It  was  not  till  1809,  however,  that  the  Quitonians 
made  a  real  attempt  to  throw  off  the  Spanish  yoke ; 
and,  both  on  that  occasion  and  in  1812,  the  royal  gen- 
eral succeeded  in  crushing  the  insurrection.  In  1820 
the  people  of  Guayaquil  took  up  the  cry  of  liberty. 
Despite  several  defeats,  they  continued  the  contest  till 
at  length,  under  General  Sucre,  who  had  been  sent  to 
their  assistance  by  Bolivar,  and  reenforced  by  a  Peru- 
vian contingent,  they  gained  a  complete  victory  on 
May  24,  1822,  in  a  battle  on  the  side  of  Mont  Pichin- 
cha,  at  a  height  of  10,200  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Two  days  later,  the  Spanish  president  of  Quito 
surrendered,  and  the  independence  of  the  country  was 
secured.  A  political  union  was  at  once  effected  with 
New  Granada  and  Venezuela,  and  the  triple  confedera- 
tion took  the  name  of  Colombia. 

A  disagreement  with  Peru  in  1828  resulted  in  the 
invasion  of  Ecuador,  and  the  temporary  occupation  of 
Cuenca  and  Guayaquil  by  Peruvian  forces ;  but  peace 
was  restored  in  the  following  year,  after  an  Ecuadorian 
victory.  In  the  early  part  of  1830  Ecuador  left  the 
Colombian  federation,  and  the  country  was  proclaimed 
an  independent  republic.  General  Flores  was  the  first 
president,  and  in  spite  of  many  difficulties,  he  managed 
to  maintain  a  powerful  position  in  the  state  for  about 
fifteen  years. 

Under  the  administration  of  its  second  president, 
which  ended  on  the  31st  of  January,  1839,  the  country 
was  in  a  condition  of  relative  peace  and  prosperity. 
The  government  made  great  efforts  to  promote  public 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH   OF   ECUADOR. 


99 


instruction,  to  improve  the  means  of  communication,  to 
inspire  confidence  in  the  stability  of  its  institutions,  and 
to  elevate  the  country  as  far  as  was  possible  with  the 
means  it  had  at  its  disposal. 

The  third  constitutional  period  of  the  republic  opened 
in  1839,  with  General  Flores  as  president  for  the  sec- 
ond time.  Four  years  after  his  inauguration  came  the 


THE   GOVERNMENT   HOUSE   AT   QUITO. 


meeting  of  a  convention  at  Quito,  in  1843,  which  again 
changed  the  constitution  of  the  country  into  a  form 
which  was  called  by  the  people  the  "  charter  of  slavery." 
Under  this  new  constitution,  which  permitted  the  chief 
magistrate  to  be  reflected  consecutively,  General  Flores 
was  inaugurated  again  as  president  of  Ecuador  on  the 
31st  of  March,  1843. 

A   revolt  occasioned    the   resignation   of    President 


100  THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Flores  two  years  later,  and  Roca,  the  leader  under 
whose  direction  the  revolution  triumphed,  became  the 
next  president.  "  He  was,"  says  Cevallos,  "  the  soul  of 
the  movement,  and  a  man  of  great  ability  and  well- 
proved  energy." 

President  Garcia  Moreno,  elected  president  in  1861, 
undertook  at  once,  with  great  earnestness,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  resources  of  the  country,  both  material  and 
moral,  by  opening  roads,  promoting  commerce,  attend- 
ing to  matters  of  public  instruction,  and,  above  all,  by 
preserving  peace  and  public  order.  He  was  a  great 
admirer  of  the  United  States,  and  was  always  ready  to 
extend  to  the  citizens  of  that  government  every  pos- 
sible courtesy  and  proof  of  good  will. 

Before  the  expiration  of  his  constitutional  term  he 
was  invested  with  extraordinary  powers,  and  acted  as 
dictator  until  his  successor,  Carrion,  was  regularly 
elected  and  inaugurated  as  president  in  1865. 

Antonio  Borrero,  a  native  of  Cuenca,  became  the 
chief  magistrate  of  Ecuador  in  1875.  This  election 
was  almost  unanimous ;  but,  although  he  proved  to  be 
a  man  of  ability  arid  good  ideas,  it  was  impossible  for 
him  to  conquer  revolution,  and  he  had  to  yield  his  place 
scarcely  a  year  after  his  election.  The  victorious  leader, 
Ignacio  de  Veintimilla,  was  elected  president ;  but  four 
years  later,  in  1879,  as  the  country  at  large  did  not 
approve  of  his  course,  he  attempted  to  give  strength 
to  his  authority  by  assuming  dictatorial  powers.  The 
party  of  order  at  last  succeeded  in  overturning  him, 
and  drove  him  from  the  country.  He  fled  from  Ecua- 
dor in  1888,  and  a  period  of  peace  and  prosperity  began 
again. 


QUITO   AND  GUAYAQUIL  101 

Jose  Caamano  was  called  to  act  as  president  until 
proper  measures  for  reconstruction  could  be  taken.  In 
1884  he  was  formally  elected.  At  the  expiration  of 
his  term  of  office,  Dr.  Antonio  Flores,  a  son  of  General 
Flores,  became  president.  Senor  Flores,  on  retiring  to 
private  life,  had  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that,  during 
his  administration,  the  country  had  made  advances  on 
the  road  of  progress  and  had  secured  the  immense  bene- 
fit of  the  reestablishment  of  its  credit.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1893  by  Dr.  Luis  Cordero,  a  native  of  Cuenca, 
and  two  years  later  by  President  Eloy  Alfaro.  Aside 
from  a  petty  revolution  which  he  put  down  with  a  firm 
hand,  he  had  a  quiet  and  prosperous  term.  General 
Leonidas  Plaja,  who  succeeds  him,  takes  office  August 
10,  1901.  • .  •  >• 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
QUITO  AND  GUAYAQUIL. 

THE  capital  city  of  Quito  is  not  an  accessible  place. 
To  reach  it  from  the  sea  one  must  ride  several  days  on 
mule-back.  The  highway  to  the  capital  is  not  yet  com- 
pleted, and  only  a  bridle-path  crosses  the  breast  of  Chim- 
borazo  at  a  height  of  fourteen  thousand  feet,  so  that 
the  journey  is  one  of  great  hardship  and  discomfort. 
Freight  for  the  interior  of  Ecuador  is  carried  upon  the 
backs  of  mules  or  men,  who  travel  twelve  or  fourteen 
hours  a  day,  and  take  two  or  three  weeks  for  the  journey. 

Quito  is  so  far  removed  from  the  rest  of  the  world 
that  the  inhabitants  seldom  leave  it,  and  people  from 


102  THE  SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

the  outside  do  not  often  go  there.  There  is  small  in- 
ducement for  visitors,  as  the  city  is  without  a  decent 
hotel,  although  there  are  fifty  or  sixty  thousand  inhabit- 
ants; and  strangers  are  compelled  to  stop  with  mer- 
chants, officials,  or  others  to  whom  they  have  letters 
of  introduction,  or  else  to  patronize  boarding-houses  of 
a  poor  order,  many  of  which  are  far  from  clean. 

There  are  no  carnages  or  wagons  in  the  place,  and 
only  a  few  carts  of  the  most  primitive  pattern,  which 
look  like  the  pictures  one  sees  in  illustrated  Bibles  of 
those  used  in  the  time  of  Moses.  The  streets  are  nar- 
row, straight,  and  undulating  with  the  inequalities  of  the 
city's  ravine-riven  site,  and  are  generally  well  paved  with 
small,  oval,  water-worn  cobbles,  after  the  ancient  fashion 
which  the  Spaniards  introduced  throughout  the  colonies. 
The  sidewalks  •a're'narrow,  scarcely  allowing  two  persons 
W  pass,  a'hd  are'  laid  with  small,  rough-surfaced  flags, 
jus£  as  they  come  "frbm  the  neighboring  quarries. 

The  traffic  is  carried  on  by  mules  and  burros,  and  by 
llamas  from  the  Andean  pastures,  for  these  are  the 
burden  bearers  of  this  strange  land.  With  these  we 
must  also  class  the  heavily  laden  native  women  and 
children,  for  they  too  are  actual  beasts  of  burden,  car- 
rying enormous  loads  or  cargoes  on  their  backs  and 
heads.  Indians  in  bright  costumes  and  long  black  hair, 
Indians  with  scarcely  any  costume  at  all,  statesmen  and 
students,  priests  and  laymen,  soldiers  and  peons,  water 
carriers  with  immense  jars  on  their  backs,  jostle  butchers 
and  bakers  ;  and  the  solitary  stranger  is  confused  with 
the  medley  of  quaint  sights  and  sounds. 

There  are  no  newspapers,  and  the  single  printing- 
office  is  owned  and  conducted  by  the  government  for 


QUITO   AND   GUAYAQUIL.  103 

the  publication  of  official  documents.  The  city  had  no 
telegraph  line  until  a  few  years  ago,  and  at  first  this 
was  useless  most  of  the  time  ;  for  the  people  cut  down 
the  poles  for  firewood,  and  stole  the  wire  to  repair  their 
harnesses  and  panniers. 

Formerly  Quito  was  unlighted  as  a  municipality,  ex- 
cept by  home-made  tallow  candles  encased  in  lanterns 
and  hung  in  front  of  the  houses  at  the  expense  of  their 
several  occupants.  The  effect  was  picturesque,  for  these 
numberless  tiny  lights  twinkled  like  fireflies  in  the 
gathering  gloom.  All  this  is  now  superseded  by  a 
modern  electrical  plant  and  the  city  has  thus  been 
brought  to  the  front  rank  in  this  respect. 

The  stores  are  small  and  generally  without  windows; 
the  doors  admit  light  and  air,  and  serve  as  well  for 
entrance  and  for  displaying  the  wares  for  sale  within. 
Most  of  the  houses  have  one  or  two  large  courtyards, 
with  an  entrance  high  enough  to  admit  a  horseman, 
and  here  the  horses  and  mules  are  quartered.  They 
have  no  other  entrance,  but  from  these  interior  patios 
admission  is  gained  to  the  various  rooms  in  the  dwelling. 
Few  houses  have  windows  on  the  ground  floor  looking 
upon  the  street,  but  they  are  lighted  from  the  inner 
courts.  The  second-story  windows  open  upon  balconies, 
which  form  delightful  gathering  places  and  are  quite 
as  largely  used  as  are  the  more  enclosed  rooms. 

Quito  has  a  population  of  some  sixty  thousand. 
Soldiers  are  everywhere,  wearing  uniforms  of  ordinary 
white  cotton  sheeting.  Peons,  or  laborers,  half  naked, 
and  children  entirely  so,  sleep  or  play  in  the  sun ;  and 
Indian  women,  clad  in  somber  black,  pass  silently  along 
the  streets  with  their  mantas  drawn  over  their  heads, 


104  THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

or  sit  in  the  market  place  selling  fruits  and  vegetables. 
Peddlers  are  numerous,  and  their  shrill  cries  afford 
great  amusement  to  strangers. 

Water  carriers  are  always  in  evidence  with  great  jars 
of  clay,  holding  half  a  barrel,  on  their  backs,  going  back 


A  WATER   CARRIER. 


and  forth  from  the  fountain  in  the  plaza ;  and  some- 
times patient  mules  carrying  barrels  of  water  are  driven 
from  door  to  door.  There  are  no  pipes  or  wells  to 
supply  the  houses,  and  all  the  water  used  by  the  fami- 
lies has  to  be  brought  by  servants  or  purchased  from 
the  public  carriers  at  so  much  a  gallon. 

A   modern   police    force,    patterned    after    those    of 


QUITO   AND   GUAYAQUIL  105 

American  cities,  has  replaced  the  order  of  policemen 
who  formerly  carried  lanterns  and  long  pikes,  and  called 
out  "  Sereno  !  "  as  the  clocks  struck  the  hours. 

A  decimal  coinage  has  also  been  introduced,  and  this 
has  done  away  with  making  change  in  rolls  of  bread, 
and  other  small  articles  of  barter.  Formerly  a  man  on 
his  way  to  market  would  stop  at  the  baker's  and  fill  his 
basket  with  bread  to  be  used  in  making  change,  so'  many 
rolls  to  the  penny;  for  the  smallest  coin  then  in  use 
was  the  quartillo,  valued  at  three  cents.  The  introduc- 
tion of  a  full  decimal  coinage  is  greatly  valued  by  the 
people,  who  are  loud  in  their  praises  of  its  convenience. 

The  historian  Cevallos  says  :  "In  Ecuador,  all  foreign 
coins  are  now  admitted  to  circulation,  except  among  the 
more  ignorant  classes  of  the  people,  who  receive  only 
the  national.  The  coins  of  Colombia,  Chile,  Spain,  Peru, 
the  North  American  eagles,  the  napoleons,  etc.,  are 
admitted  at  their  respective  values.  The  Spanish  coins, 
if  not  mutilated,  or  perforated,  sometimes  sell  at  a  pre- 
mium of  twelve  and  a  half  per  cent." 

A  recent  visitor  to  Quito  says:  "  Very  little  water  is 
used  for  drinking,  for  bathing,  or  for  laundry  purposes. 
There  is  a  national  prejudice  against  it.  The  people 
have  a  notion  that  water  is  unwholesome  ;  that  it  causes 
dyspepsia,  if  too  much  is  taken  into  the  stomach,  and 
that  fever  will  result  from  too  free  use  of  it  upon  the 
skin." 

In  the  city  of  Guayaquil  matters  are  decidedly  better 
than  in  the  capital.  Its  busy  docks,  vehicles  driving 
about  in  all  directions,  and  flags  waving  over  the  bal- 
conies of  the  houses  give  it  a  much  better  appearance. 

Guayaquil  depends  almost  entirely  upon  its   import 


106 


THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


and  export  traffic.  The  chief  land  industries  are  tan- 
ning and  ship-building.  Here  were  built  the  first  ships 
constructed  from  native  woods  and  launched  in  south- 
ern Pacific  waters.  At  all  times  there  may  be  seen  in 
the  harbor  the  flags  of  foreign  nations,  whose  vessels 


THE    RIVER    MARKET  AT   GUAYAQUIL. 


engage  in  the  carrying  trade  by  which  the  manufactured 
goods  of  Europe  are  exchanged  for  the  rich  natural 
productions  of  the  great  equatorial  garden,  to  which 
the  city  of  Guayaquil  forms  the  entrance.  As  a  sea- 
port the  city  is,  from  its  favorable  situation,  one  of  the 
most  important  on  the  western  coast  of  South  America. 
The  climate  is  warm,  rain  falls  almost  constantly, 
and  from  one  end  of  the  year  to  the  other  the  tempera- 


QUITO   AND   GUAYAQUIL  107 

ture  varies  so  little  that  one  can  hardly  distinguish  the 
changes  in  the  seasons.  The  streets  are  well  paved, 
lighted  by  gas,  and  traversed  by  tramways ;  and  there 
are  many  fine  buildings,  both  public  and  private.  The 
churches  are  numerous,  and  are  adorned  with  rich 
gildings  and  with  gaudily  dressed  saints. 

A  cable  belonging  to  a  New  York  company  connects 
the  city  with  the  outside  world,  and  an  interior  tele- 
graph line  places  it  in  constant  communication  with 
Quito.  The  country  around  the  city  is  famous,  among 
other  things,  for  its  pineapples,  which  are  claimed  to 
be  the  finest  in  the  world ;  and  also  for  the  hats  and 
hammocks  which  are  made  there. 

All  the  street-car  lines  of  Ecuador  are  in  Guayaquil, 
and  have  been  built  by  individual  enterprise,  the  first 
one  being  constructed  by  citizens  of  the  United  States. 
Although  the  city  has  a  population  of  sixty  thousand, 
it  is  so  compactly  built  that  all  the  lines  are  short. 

Of  all  the  South  American  republics,  Ecuador  has 
been  the  least  modified  by  the  influence  of  European 
customs  and  ideas.  On  the  elevated  plateaus,  always 
difficult  of  access,  the  Indians  have  scarcely  changed 
their  social  habits  in  the  presence  of  a  mere  handful  of 
whites.  The  entrance  of  immigrants,  except  to  Guaya- 
quil, remains  insignificant.  The  lack  of  railroads  has 
kept  the  provinces  backward.  In  some  of  the  remote 
southern  districts  the  plow  is  unknown  and  the  natives 
are  said  to  thresh  out  the  wheat  by  dancing  on  the  ears 
with  heavy  clogs ;  hence  it  is  not  surprising  that  wheat 
flour  has  to  be  imported  from  Chile  and  Colombia. 

Caste  among  Ecuadorians  is  decidedly  pronounced. 
The  white  race,  descendants  of  the  Spaniards,  dominates. 


108  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

They  are  intellectual,  wise,  just  in  their  dealings  with 
their  fellow-men,  and  liberal  in  all  matters  relating  to 
government.  But  socially,  the  line  is  closely  drawn, 
and  the  white  race  keeps  quite  to  itself.  The  middle 
classes,  be  it  said  to  their  credit,  are  endowed  with 
more  than  ordinary  intelligence,  but  lack  cultivation. 
The  lower  classes  are  very  ignorant,  but  their  con- 
dition will  soon  be  improved,  since  schools  are  being 
established  throughout  the  republic,  and  education  has 
at  last  been  made  free  and  compulsory.  The  first 
Normal  School  was  opened  in  1900  under  American 
direction. 

But  an  Ecuadorian  school  is  not  of  a  type  with  which 
the  North  American  teacher  is  familiar.  Here  is  a 
description  of  one  taken  from  an  article  in  the  Chautau- 
quan :  "  Imagine  some  thirty  little  urchins,  each  one 
wearing  a  red  poncho,  and  individually  studying  aloud 
in  a  sing-song  drone,  on  the  go-as-you-please  plan ; 
each  quite  independent  of  any  one  else.  The  school- 
room was  out  of  doors,  sheltered  only  by  some  ragged 
straw  thatching;  and  the  scholars  sat  on  the  ground 
while  the  master  strode  up  and  down,  swinging  a  long 
whip  in  his  hand.  He  was  very  gracious,  and  evidently 
proud  of  his  charge.  It  was  not  clear  to  us  how  the 
children  could  learn  much  from  this  sort  of  application ; 
but  the  effect  was  not  unmusical  at  a  little  distance,  the 
mingling  of  the  childish  voices  softening  into  a  harmo- 
nious cadence." 

The  Indians  constitute  the  laboring  population. 
When  on  a  journey  they  generally  take  a  slow  trot, 
which  they  can  keep  up  for  hours  without  tiring,  even 
with  a  hundred  pounds  on  their  backs.  They  never 


QUITO   AND    GUAYAQUIL 


109 


laugh  or  sing,  have  no  sports,  no  songs,  no  tales ;  but 
are  sullen,  morose,  stupid,  and  submissive  to  all  sorts 
of  cruelty  and  oppression. 

There  is  in  Guayaquil  a  fair  variety  of  manufactories, 
but  none  is  of  a  very  extensive  character,  for  the  people 


A   STREET    IN    GUAYAQUIL. 


rely  mainly  on  the  outside  world  for  manufactured 
supplies.  The  United  States  supplies  nearly  all  of  the 
sugar-making  machinery,  all  the  saw-mills,  all  the 
planing-mill  machinery,  nearly  all  the  steam-engines, 
all  the  carts,  all  the  sewing-machines,  nearly  all  the 
best  saddles  and  harnesses,  all  the  street  cars,  some  of 
the  furniture,  a  large  share  of  the  axes,  many  billiard 
tables,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  musical  instruments. 


110  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

ECUADOR'S   NATURAL  BEAUTIES. 

No  country  in  the  world,  probably,  presents  a  more 
varied  surface  than  Ecuador.  The  Ecuadorian  Andes 
have  the  appearance  of  a  gigantic  ladder  lying  flat  on 
the  ground,  provided  with  eight  rounds,  or  steps,  more 
or  less  crooked  and  at  unequal  distances  from  each 
other,  which  leave  between  them  vast  spaces,  or  pla- 
teaus, on  which  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  republic 
make  their  home.  The  great  Quito  basin,  warmed  by 
the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  throughout  the  year,  shut 
in  on  every  side  by  sierras,  and  sentineled  by  some  of 
the  highest  peaks  on  the  globe,  is  the  abode  of  per- 
petual spring,  although  it  lies  ninety-five  hundred  feet 
above  the  ocean  level. 

When  the  locomotive  has  crowded  out  the  Indian 
carrier  and  the  plodding  mule,  and  swift  and  cheap 
communication  brings  within  touch  of  the  outer  world 
these  garden  spots,  then  Ecuador  will  lavishly  yield  its 
riches,  second  to  no  land  beneath  the  heavens.  Favored 
with  the  productions  of  every  zone,  fanned  with  cool- 
ing winds  from  icy  heights  that  temper  the  torrid  heat, 
the  Quitonian  plateau  is  salubrious,  and  has  been 
likened  to  a  sort  of  terrestrial  paradise,  with  neither 
spring,  summer,  nor  autumn,  yet  mingling  the  best 
of  all. 

Many  individual  discomforts  are  to  be  encountered 
in  traveling  through  this  district,  but  these  are  more 
than  compensated  for  by  the  loveliness  of  the  country. 
On  the  one  hand  is  to  be  seen  the  snowy  mountain 


ECUADOR'S   NATURAL   BEAUTIES. 


Ill 


range,  with  the  glittering  peaks  of  Cotopaxi,  Tungu- 
ragua,  and  Chimborazo  ever  visible;  and  on  the  other 
side  the  valley  stretches  out  till  shut  in  by  the  more 
distant  sierras.  There  are  many  rough  bridges  crossing 
turbulent  streams 
formed  by  the 
melting  snows, 
scores  of  crystal 
cataracts  fed  by 
distant  glaciers, 
and  numerous 
long-drawn-out 
Indian  villages. 
In  the  wild  moun- 
tain heights  one 
may  see  the  great 
black  condor,  one 
of  those  birds  of 
prey  which  attack 
even  sheep  and 
goats  in  their 
hunger.  Theyare 
said  to  be  the 
largest  fly  ing  bird 
in  the  world.  On 
the  highway  herds 
of  llamas  and  caravans  of  mules,  with  their  heavy 
cargoes,  add  to  the  interest;  and  now  and  then  a  cava- 
lier in  picturesque  attire  lends  a  little  color  to  the 
already  brilliant  scene. 

In  speaking  of  Quito,  Professor  Orton  of  New  York 


THE   CONDOR. 


112  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

"  The  traveler  is  charmed  in  looking  at  the  carpet  of 
perpetual  verdancy  on  which  Quito  stands.  The  cli- 
mate is  delightful.  Neither  cholera,  nor  yellow  fever, 
nor  consumption,  is  known  there.  The  mild  and  healthy 
temperature  which  prevails  at  the  capital  is  something 
admirable. 

"  The  hot,  scorching  air  which  continually  surrounds 
the  inhabitants  of  other  places  of  the  same  latitude  is 
never  breathed  there.  The  lands  of  Africa  and  the 
East  Indies,  which  occupy  on  the  globe  the  same  geo- 
graphical position,  are  scarcely  inhabited,  owing  prin- 
cipally to  their  parched  condition.  Those  of  Ecuador, 
on  the  contrary,  enjoy  a  perpetual  spring." 

Don  Pedro  Cevallos,  the  author  of  an  admirable  book 
on  this  republic,  also  says :  — 

"Nature,  which  generally  in  America  shows  herself 
majestic  and  full  of  beauty  and  sublimity,  seems  to 
have  selected  Ecuador,  the  land  where  the  soil  is 
higher  and  where  the  sun  throws  its  rays  vertically, 
to  show  her  power  and  strength,  even  by  appearing 
to  defy  her  own  laws.  Side  by  side  with  the  most 
gigantic  summits,  the  deepest  hollows  and  gorges  can 
be  seen.  Close  to  perpetual  ice  and  snow,  fire,  like- 
wise perpetual,  is  exhibited  to  the  eye;  and  charming 
valleys,  remarkable  for  their  luxuriant  vegetation  and 
verdant  freshness,  alternate  with  the  most  desolate 
deserts  and  precipices.  Everywhere  appears,  as  if  in 
unseemly  confusion,  winter  mingled  with  summer;  the 
dry  sands  of  the  desert  with  the  green  grass  of  the 
meadows ;  the  snowing  season  with  the  harvest  season. 
At  the  same  time,  in  the  same  month,  and  at  compara- 
tively short  distances  the  vegetation  appears  in  all 


ECUADOR'S   NATURAL   BEAUTIES. 


113 


shades,   from  the   tender  green  of   the  spring  to  the 
yellow-tinted  shades  of  the  fall." 

In  a  study  of  the  beauties  of  Ecuador  we  naturally 
turn  to  the  mountains,  the  loftiest  of  which  is  Chimbo- 
razo,  which  rises  to  an  altitude  of  21,422  feet.  It  was 
for  a  long  time  supposed  to  be  the  highest  mountain  in 
America,  but  modern  surveys  have  shown  that  it  has 
several  superiors. 


CHIMBORAZO. 


Humboldt  and  his  companions  endeavored,  in  1820, 
to  ascend  to  the  top  of  Chimborazo,  but  were  obliged 
to  stop  short  when  they  had  yet  two  thousand  and  more 
feet  above  them.  They  were  stopped  by  an  immense 
chasm  that  stretched  across  the  line  they  were  ascend- 
ing, and  by  the  inconveniences  that  are  generally  ex- 
perienced at  high  altitudes.  Blood  spurted  from  their 


114  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

eyes  and  lips,  and  they  breathed  with  great  difficulty. 
According  to  barometrical  observations,  Humboldt 
was  within  2138  feet  of  the  summit  when  he  turned 
back. 

Cotopaxi  is  the  loftiest  of  the  active  volcanoes. 
Clouds  of  smoke  by  day  and  a  pillar  of  fire  by  night 
constantly  rise  from  a  crater  that  is  more  than  three 
thousand  feet  beyond  the  reach  of  man.  Many  have 
attempted  to  scale  it,  but  the  walls  are  so  steep  and 
the  snow  is  so  soft,  that  ascent  is  impossible,  even  with 
scaling  ladders.  On  the  south  side  of  Cotopaxi  is  a 
great  rock,  more  than  two  thousand  feet  high,  called 
the  "Inca's  Head."  Tradition  says  that  it  was  once 
the  summit  of  the  volcano,  and  that  it  fell  on  the  day 
on  which  Atahualpa  was  strangled  by  the  Spaniards. 

Ecuador  may  be  said  to  be  the  center  of  the  most  vol- 
canic region  of  the  globe.  There  are  fifty-one  volcanoes 
in  the  chain  of  the  Andes,  and  of  this  number  no  less 
than  twenty  surround  the  valley  where  Quito  stands. 
Three  of  the  twenty  are  active,  five  are  dormant,  and 
twelve  are  extinct;  they  all  lie  within  a  space  two 
hundred  miles  long  and  thirty  wide.  In  addition  to 
these  volcanoes  there  are  many  other  peaks  not  strictly 
volcanic.  There  are  twenty-two  mountains  whose  tops 
are  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  and  fifty  that  are  each 
more  than  ten  thousand  feet  high. 

The  country  is  crossed  in  all  directions  by  ninety-one 
rivers,  of  different  size  and  importance,  which  form  two 
well-marked  systems.  One  system  consists  of  the 
streams  which  flow  toward  the  east  and  the  southeast, 
emptying  their  waters  into  the  gigantic  Amazon ;  and 
the  other  is  formed  by  the  streams  which  take  their 


ECUADOR'S   NATURAL   BEAUTIES.  115 

course  toward  the  west  and  the  southwest,  and  empty 
into  the  Pacific. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  the  river  valleys  of  both 
the  eastern  and  the  western  sections  of  the  country, 
the  soil,  when  well  cultivated,  gives  generous  crops  of 
cacao,  sugar  cane,  cotton,  rice,  coffee,  tobacco,  bananas, 
and  other  tropical  fruits;  and  along  the  inter-Andean 
plateau  all  the  cereals  and  vegetables  incident  to  a 
temperate  and  even  to  a  cold  climate  are  produced. 

Most  of  the  lands  of  the  western  section  are  forest- 
covered,  and  furnish  a  great  variety  of  excellent  hard 
woods  for  building  and  cabinet  purposes.  The  nearer 
one  approaches  the  base  of  the  Andes,  the  larger  and 
taller  the  trees  become,  until,  in  the  gorges  of  the 
western  spurs,  one  finds  the  hothouses  of  nature,  which, 
steaming  under  a  tropical  sun,  force  into  existence  a 
rank  and  prodigal  vegetation.  Each  plant  and  tree 
has  to  wage  desperate  war  for  existence,  and  when  some 
monarch  of  the  forest  lifts  his  crest  above  his  fellows, 
tons  of  mosses  and  parasites  tug  at  the  trunk  and 
branches  until  the  exhausted  giant  is  borne  to  earth. 

The  eastern  or  Amazon  section  is  also  heavily 
Avooded,  and  the  rank  growth  along  the  foothills  of 
the  Andes  becomes  dense  and  almost  impenetrable, — 
so  much  so,  that  man  stands  but  little  chance  when  he 
undertakes  to  do  battle  with  the  forces  of  nature  in 
these  equatorial  districts 

The  most  beautiful  thing  in  the  tropics  is  a  young 
palm  tree.  The  old  ones  are  more  graceful  than  any 
of  our  foliage  plants,  but  they  all  show  signs  of  decay. 
The  young  ones,  so  supple  as  to  bend  before  the  winds, 
are  the  ideal  of  grace  and  loveliness,  as  picturesque  in 


116 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


repose  as  in  motion.  The  long,  spreading  leaves  of 
vivid  green  bend  and  sway  with  the  breeze,  and  nod  in 
the  sunlight  with  a  beauty  which  cannot  be  described. 


BANANAS   GROWING. 


Ivory  nuts  are  an  important  product.  They  were 
exported  in  1897  to  the  amount  of  31,400,848  pounds, 
which  represented  a  value  of  $529,886.  These  figures, 
however,  are  very  small  in  comparison  with  those  of 
former  years,  particularly  of  1879,  when  the  value  of 
the  export  amounted  to  $1,730,519  in  gold.  The 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF   PERU.  117 

decrease  has  resulted  chiefly  from  the  fact  that   the 
foreign  demand  has  fallen  off. 

An  article  of  great  value  to  the  republic,  and 
abundantly  found  within  its  territory,  is  the  Peruvian 
bark,  called  in  Spanish  quina  or  cinchona.  Of  this 
product  Mr.  Church  says:  "The  world  owes  to  the 
province  of  Loja,  Ecuador,  the  first  presentation  of  this 
valuable  febrifuge,  under  the  name  of  Jesuits'  bark. 
It  was,  however,  used  long  before  the  time  of  the 
Jesuits  by  the  Indians  all  along  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Ecuadorian,  Peruvian,  and  Bolivian  Andes;  and 
especially  by  the  celebrated  Indian  doctors  of  the 
Bolivian  province  of  Campolican,  whom  I  have  met  in 
Bolivia,  hundreds  of  miles  from  their  homes,  carrying 
their  bags  of  roots  and  herbs,  with  which  they  have 
the  reputation  of  performing  wonderful  cures.  The 
Indian  name  for  Peruvian  bark  is  quina-quina,  from 
which  the  modern  name  of  quinine  is  derived." 

Just  now  the  forests  of  Ecuador  are  being  stripped 
of  Peruvian  bark  in  a  very  destructive  way.  Thou- 
sands of  trees  are  being  destroyed  and  none  planted  to 
replace  them.  The  bark  is  all  shipped  from  Guayaquil. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
HISTORICAL   SKETCH  OF  PERU. 

WHEN  Pizarro  discovered  Peru,  he  found  a  great 
nation  enjoying  a  second  epoch  in  civilization.  Of  the 
first  epoch  but  little  has  been  told  in  the  traditions  of 
the  Incas. 


118  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

"Constant  employment  of  the  people  in  systematic 
labor  and  organized  recreation,  without  oppression  or 
hurry,  with  no  rank  of  wealth,  among  a  race  too  gentle 
to  be  ambitious  and  too  docile  to  be  vicious,  produced 
a  state  in  which  the  Spanish  adventurer,  who  conquered 
the  land,  found  industry,  virtue,  and  contentment.  It 
was  the  highest  type  of  Indian  civilization  yet  reached 
on  this  hemisphere,  and  probably  the  highest  of  which 
the  aboriginal  American  was  capable." 

The  conquest  of  Peru  was  consummated  by  Pizarro's 
treacherous  capture  of  Atahualpa,  in  November,  1532. 
This  was  effected  without  a  battle,  but  with  immense 
slaughter  of  the  unsuspecting,  unarmed  retinue  of  the 
Inca  who  had  come  to  welcome  the  strange  visitors  to  his 
dominions  —  a  slaughter  led  by  the  priest  Valerde.  On 
the  29th  of  the  next  August,  Atahualpa  was  strangled  on 
the  square  of  Cajarmarca.  Not  long  afterward  Valerde 
was  made  bishop  of  Cuzco,  and  Pizarro  was  created  a 
marquis  of  Spain.  The  accounts  of  this  slaughter  vary 
so  widely  that  the  number  slain  is  stated  as  low  as 
500,000  and  as  high  as  40,000,000.  Perhaps  we  may 
gain  a  fair  idea  of  the  matter  from  the  statement 
following:  — 

"The  present  population  of  the  three  states  which 
were  wholly  or  in  part  included  in  the  Inca  Empire  — 
namely,  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Bolivia  —  does  not  exceed 
8,000,000.  It  would  be  safe  to  estimate  the  population 
under  the  Inca  rule  at  about  double  that  number,  or  per- 
haps somewhere  between  10, 000, 000  and  12, 000, 000,  not- 
withstanding Las  Casas,  the  good  but  not  very  accurate 
bishop  of  Chiapa,  tells  us  that,  in  the  province  of  Peru 
alone,  the  Spaniards  killed  about  40,000,000  of  people." 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF    PERU. 


119 


On  Monday,  the  18th  of  January,  1535,  Pizarro,  with 
sixty  of  his  followers,  laid  the  foundation  of  a  city 
which  he  determined  should  be  the  capital  of  the 
new  nation  of  his  conquest.  He  called  it  "The  City 
of  the  Kings,"  in  honor  of  the  Spanish  sovereigns, 
Juana  and  Carlos 
V.,  her  son.  Later 
its  name  became 
Lima,  —  a  corrup- 
tion of  "Rimac," 
the  name  of  the 
river  on  whose 
banks  it  stands, 
—  the  beautiful 
city  that  is  to-day 
the  capital  of  the 
republic.  Pizarro 
laid  out  and  began 
building  the  Plaza 
de  Armas  of  Lima, 
just  as  it  has  since 
been  finished. 

He  had  already 
given  the  name  of 
San  Miguel  to  a 
city  in  the  extreme  north  of  the  conquered  province ; 
and,  after  the  founding  of  Lima,  he  established  a  new 
city,  halfway  between  the  two,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  Truxillo,  in  honor  of  his  native  city  in  Spain. 

As  he  grew  older  he  became  somewhat  unpopular, 
chiefly  on  account  of  his  stern  and  overbearing  disposi- 
tion ;  and  in  1541,  when  over  seventy  years  of  age,  he 


PIZARRO. 


120  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

was  assassinated  in  his  house  in  Lima  by  a  revolu- 
tionary mob  of  citizens.  After  his  death,  governors 
and  viceroys  were  sent  over  from  Spain  to  manage  the 
affairs  of  the  province;  and  this  form  of  government, 
which  was  extremely  distasteful  to  the  people,  was 
continued  down  to  1821. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  Peru  had 
become  the  center  of  Spanish  power  in  South  America, 
and  the  viceroy  had  his  strength  concentrated  at  Lima. 
Consequently,  the  more  distant  provinces  of  Chile  arid 
Buenos  Aires  were  first  able  to  throw  off  the  Spanish 
yoke.  But  the  destruction  of  the  viceroy's  power  was 
essential  to  their  continued  independence. 

The  conquest  of  the  Peruvian  coast  depended  on  the 
command  of  the  sea.  Accordingly,  in  1818,  a  fleet  of 
six  vessels  was  fitted  out  in  Valparaiso,  and  sailed 
north  under  the  command  of  Lord  Cochrane,  a  dis- 
tinguished English  naval  officer.  All  the  vessels  were 
commanded  by  Englishmen  except  one,  the  commander 
of  which  was  an  American.  It  was  two  years  before 
the  invaders  were  able  to  effect  a  landing  on  the  coast 
of  Peru,  but  in  1820  an  army  of  Argentine  troops  and 
some  Chileans,  under  the  command  of  San  Martin, 
landed  and  marched  on  Lima,  where  they  were  enthusi- 
astically received.  The  viceroy  fled,  and  on  the  28th 
of  July,  1821,  the  independence  of  Peru  was  declared. 
Fourteen  months  later  the  military  commander,  San 
Martin,  withdrew,  and  the  first  Congress  became  the 
sovereign  power  of  the  state. 

After  a  short  period  of  government  by  a  committee 
of  three,  Congress  elected,  in  1823,  Don  Jose*  Riva- 
Agiiero  to  be  the  first  president  of  Peru.  The  second 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH   OF   PERU.  121 

president  was  General  Lamar,  who  had  command  at  the 
final  battle  for  independence,  which  resulted  in  the 
complete  rout  of  the  viceroy  and  his  army.  General 
Gamarra  was  the  third  president  of  Peru. 

Between  the  years  1828  and  1839  numerous  struggles 
took  place,  and  three  new  constitutions  were  adopted. 
General  Ramon  Castilla  restored  peace  to  the  coun- 
try and,  in  1845,  was  elected  president.  Ten  years  of 
peace  and  increasing  prosperity  followed;  in  1849  the 
regular  payment  of  interest  on  the  public  debt  was 
begun,  steamship  communication  along  the  coast  was 
established,  and  a  railroad  was  built  from  Lima  to 
Callao,  its  port. 

Castilla  retired  from  office  in  1851,  and  Echenique 
was  elected  his  successor;  but  after  three  years  of  suc- 
cessful administration  he  was  deposed  by  a  revolu- 
tionary movement  led  by  Castilla,  at  the  end  of  a 
struggle  that  lasted  six  months.  Castilla  again  became 
president,  in  1855,  and  reestablished  order.  With  the 
exception  of  a  local  insurrection,  there  was  peace  in 
Peru  until  the  Chilean  war  broke  out  in  1879. 

The  present  constitution  of  the  nation  was  framed  in 
1856  and  revised  by  a  commission  in  1860.  Slavery 
and  the  Indian  tribute  of  the  "mita,"  only  another 
name  for  slavery,  were  abolished  by  its  provisions. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  she  had  signed  a  treaty 
acknowledging  the  independence  of  Peru,  Spain  sought 
to  regain  control  of  a  land  which  had  contributed 
magnificent  treasures  to  her  wealth.  She  demanded 
$3,000,000  indemnity  for  damages  claimed  to  be  due 
to  certain  Spanish  immigrants  who  had  settled  in  the 
country.  President  Pezet  prudently  temporized  with 


122  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Spain  while  he  was  putting  himself  in  a  position  of 
defense.  But  his  conduct  was  misunderstood  by  the 
people,  and  he  preferred  to  resign  the  presidency  rather 
than  be  the  cause  of  civil  war. 


AN    INCA    BURIAL  TOWER. 


Colonel  Prado  was  declared  supreme  chief,  and  made 
a  treaty  of  defense  with  Chile  that  resulted  in  driving 
the  Spanish  from  the  coast.  One  of  the  important  holi- 
days of  the  republic  commemorates  the  battle  of  May  2, 
1866,  which  has  given  a  name  to  many  public  insti- 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF   PERU.  123 

tutions.  Through  the  medium  of  the  United  States 
a  truce  was  arranged  between  the  contending  powers, 
and  in  1879  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between 
Peru  and  Spain. 

Manuel  Pardo,  who  was  elected  to  the  presidency 
in  1873,  did  some  excellent  work.  He  founded  a 
fine  arts  society,  charged  with  the  duty  of  administer- 
ing the  buildings  in  the  public  garden  of  Lima.  He 
intended  the  salons  of  these  beautiful  edifices  for  the 
establishment  of  a  general  museum,  a  school  of  painting 
and  sculpture,  and  a  music  hall.  It  is  difficult  to  es- 
timate what  might  have  been  the  ultimate  results  of 
this  wise  administration,  had  not  the  terrible  war  with 
Chile  interrupted  the  progress  of  the  country  and  drawn 
the  attention  of  the  people  away  from  the  higher  civil- 
ization toward  which  they  were  moving,  to  become 
centered  on  the  more  immediate  duty  of  defense  against 
foreign  invasion.  Pardo's  term  of  office  ended  in  1877. 
He  Avas  succeeded  by  General  Prado,  during  whose 
administration  the  war  with  Chile  occurred. 

The  unexpected  declaration  of  war  by  her  southern 
neighbor,  in  April,  1879,  found  Peru  wholly  unpre- 
pared, on  land  and  sea,  for  such  an  emergency,,  After 
the  continuation  of  hostilities  for  four  years,  during 
which  Peru  exhibited  great  patriotism  and  devotion,  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  by  Iglesias,  who  was  at  the 
time  acting  president  of  Peru. 

In  this  war  with  Chile  the  nation  was  severely 
crippled.  The  purpose  of  the  Chilean  commander  on 
the  coast  was  utterly  to  destroy  every  enterprise  within 
his  reach  that  contributed  to  Peruvian  wealth,  and 
thus  to  annihilate  the  power  of  the  republic.  This 


124  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

determination  was  carried  out  with  a  cool  barbarism 
that  has  rarely  been  equaled.  Undefended  mills  and 
factories,  without  consideration  of  their  ownership, 
and  great  accumulations  of  material  for  the  building 
and  equipment  of  railroads,  largely  the  property  of 
Americans,  were  destroyed  in  fulfillment  of  the  savage 
design  to  wipe  Peru  from  the  list  of  nations.  A  de- 
struction so  terribly  thorough  might  well  have  para- 
lyzed the  energies  of  any  people. 

During  the  war  Prado  went  to  Europe,  leaving  the 
government  in  the  hands  of  the  first  vice  president, 
General  La  Puerta.  The  departure  of  the  president 
created  an  excitement  in  Lima  that  ended  in  the  retire- 
ment of  the  vice  president.  General  Pierola,  who  had 
been  a  prominent  party  leader,  was  then  elevated  to 
the  presidency,  which  he  assumed  by  tacit  consent; 
but  when  he  left  the  city,  and  the  Chilean  army 
appeared  at  its  gates,  Dr.  Garcia  Calderon,  an  emi- 
nent lawyer  of  the  capital,  was  invited  by  leading 
citizens  to  assume  direction  of  affairs.  His  govern- 
ment was  recognized  by  the  United  States,  Switzerland, 
and  the  Central  American  republics.  He  attempted  to 
arrange  a  peace  with  Chile,  but  found  that  the  demands 
were  unacceptable,  and  asked  that  the  United  States 
be  invited  to  arbitrate  the  questions  in  dispute.  The 
proposition  was  refused,  and  Dr.  Calderon  was  sent  a 
prisoner  to  Chile.  The  invaders  then  placed  the  gov- 
ernment of  Peru  in  the  hands  of  Iglesias,  and  arranged 
with  him  for  peace,  the  treaty  being  ratified  by  an 
assembly  in  1884. 

A  constitutional  Congress  met  at  Lima  on  the  30th 
of  May,  1886,  and  Caceres  was  unanimously  elected 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF   PERU.  125 

president  of  the  republic.  President  Caceres  was 
called  to  a  most  distressing  task.  The  country  was 
utterly  ruined ;  the  pall  of  death  covered  every  house- 
hold; and  the  repeated  massacre  of  Indians  and  the  loss 
of  the  flower  of  the  country's  manhood  on  the  battle- 


THE   CATHEDRAL   AT    LIMA. 


field  had  greatly  reduced  the  population.  The  treasury 
was  empty.  The  country  had  been  robbed  of  all  visible 
means  of  recuperation. 

Caceres  began,  as  Pardo  had  done  before  him,  by  re- 
ducing the  expense  of  administering  the  government 
to  the  lowest  possible  point.  The  army  was  reduced 
to  a  little  over  three  thousand  men,  and  the  navy  was 
cut  down  to  two  small  steamers,  the  Peru  and  the  Santa 
Rosa.  His  administration  was  a  constant  struggle  with 


126  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

adverse  circumstances.  But  while  it  was  not  possible 
to  meet  so  much  as  the  interest  on  the  foreign  debt,  he 
succeeded  in  restoring  perfect  order  in  all  parts  of  the 
republic  and  in  every  department  of  the  government. 

On  the  10th  of  August,  1890,  General  Caceres  sur- 
rendered the  office  of  president,  which  he  had  held  for 
the  legal  term  of  four  years,  into  the  hands  of  his  suc- 
cessor, Colonel  Bermudez,  as  constitutional  president 
of  Peru.  Caceres  has  since  held  the  honorable  position 
of  minister  t^  Great  Britain  and  France. 

President  Bermudez  did  splendid  duty  for  his  coun- 
try during  the  Chilean  war,  and  his  administration, 
like  that  of  his  predecessor,  was  one  of  patriotic  devo- 
tion to  his  people.  Peru,  under  him,  had  a  firm  and 
stable  government,  under  the  influence  of  prudent,  far- 
sighted  statesmen,  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  mate- 
rial development  of  their  country  and  the  elevation  of 
the  people. 

Nicolas  de  Pierola  was  elected  president  in  1895,  to 
serve  for  the  term  of  four  years.  During  the  year  1896 
a  revolution  broke  out  in  eastern  Peru.  A  provisional 
government  was  established  at  Iquitos  and  fortifications 
were  erected.  President  Pierola  sent  to  the  revolted 
province  two  overland  expeditions,  which  had  to  make  a 
march  of  nearly  one  thousand  miles  over  difficult  moun- 
tain roads.  Iquitos  is  situated  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion on  the  Amazon.  In  order  to  reach  the  rebels  by 
water,  the  secretary  of  war  set  out  with  the  transport 
Constitucidn  to  sail  round  by  the  Strait  of  Magellan  and 
ascend  the  Amazon.  How  well  this  illustrates  the 
almost  complete  isolation  of  eastern  Peru !  The  rebel- 
lion, however,  soon  failed,  and  President  Pierola  bent 


THE    LAND   OF   GOLD   AND   SILVER.  127 

all  his  efforts  toward  the  reestablishment  of  prosperity 
and  progress.  Pierola  was  succeeded  in  1899  by 
Eduardo  Romaiia,  who  is  following  closely  in  his  steps. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
THE   LAND   OF    GOLD    AND    SILVER. 

EVER  since  the  world  first  heard  the  story  of  Peru, 
the  simple  mention  of  its  name  has  been  sufficient  to 
conjure  up  visions  of  gold  and  silver,  of  precious  stones 
and  fragrant  woods.  The  ransom  of  Atahualpa, — a 
large  room  piled  with  the  most  elaborately  wrought  orna- 
ments and  utensils  of  gold  and  silver  as  high  as  a  man 
could  reach, —  and  the  stories,  by  no  means  fabulous, 
of  the  immense  treasure  sent  to  the  Spanish  monarchs, 
have  led  us  to  think  of  the  country  as  the  center  of 
health,  wealth,  and  happiness,  a  little  nearer  paradise 
than  any  other  land. 

Nor  has  this  wonderful  dream  passed  away  from  the 
hopes  and  beliefs  of  men.  At  the  present  time  Peru 
is  the  object  of  more  enterprise  and  substantial  invest- 
ment, for  the  purpose  of  developing  its  well-proven 
natural  resources,  than  any  other  country  on  the 
Western  continent. 

Gold  is  found  in  every  part  of  Peru.  In  the  mari- 
time Andes,  where  the  rocks  are  of  a  crystalline  char- 
acter, it  is  found  in  veins  of  quartz,  which  are  intruded 
into  the  granite  and  syenite.  It  is  even  said  that  the 
entire  subsoil  of  Peru  is  an  almost  unbroken  network 


128  THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

of  gold-bearing  lodes.  The  obstacles  to  working  them 
are  in  many  places  discouraging, — want  of  water,  inac- 
cessible peaks,  severe  climate,  and  want  of  roads  being 
among  the  chief  of  them. 

But  silver  mining  is  really  the  greatest  industry  of 
Peru.  Like  copper,  silver  is  found  in  its  greatest 
abundance  in  the  maritime  Andes.  The  lack  of  roads 
and  of  capital  have  led  to  the  abandonment  of  many 
and  important  deposits,  so  that,  while  there  are  really 
two  thousand  silver  mines  already  opened  in  Peru, 
comparatively  few  are  being  worked. 

The  gold  mines  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca,  near 
Puno,  which  at  one  time  yielded  quite  a  million  and  a 
half  ounces  annually,  have  for  many  years  produced  little 
or  nothing.  The  opening  of  the  railway  to  Puno  will, 
no  doubt,  put  them  in  operation  once  more.  There  is 
no  lack  of  mines  in  other  parts  of  Peru ;  but  most  of 
them  lie  beyond  the  vast  barriers  of  the  Cordilleras, 
in  desolate  regions  where  their  development  is  almost 
impossible. 

The  Peru  of  which  we  usually  speak  is  a  desert 
averaging  sixty  miles  wide  and  extending  a  thousand 
miles  along  the  Pacific  coast.  This  desert  contains  the 
most  important  cities  of  the  republic,  and  is  supplied 
along  its  shores  with  numerous  safe  anchorages,  some 
of  which  are  excellent  harbors.  Rain  falls  on  this  vast 
plain  at  intervals  of  five  to  seven  years,  and  then  the 
aggregate  of  any  year  does  not  exceed  four  inches. 
Sometimes,  but  rarely,  rain  has  fallen  in  two  succes- 
sive years,  when  there  is  indeed  rejoicing,  for  it 
means  a  continuance  of  crops  beyond  the  ordinary- 
period. 


THE   LAND   OF   GOLD   AND   SILVER.  129 

Callao  is  the  port  of  Lima,  seven  miles  distant,  and 
two  lines  of  railroad  connect  the  cities.  The  harbor 
of  Callao  is  not  of  the  best;  but,  as  there  is  never  a 
storm  on  this  part  of  the  coast,  no  further  protection 
is  needed  than  is  afforded  by  the  island  of  San  Lorenzo, 
on  the  southwest  side  of  the  anchorage,  which  serves  as 
a  breakwater  against  the  swell  of  the  ocean  rolling  up 
from  that  direction  all  along  the  coast.  On  the  sea- 
ward side  of  San  Lorenzo  is  a  lighthouse.  Callao  is  in 
the  sunshine  when  Lima  is  under  a  dense  cloud  of  fog, 
and  has,  on  that  account,  a  vastly  more  agreeable  cli- 
mate in  winter  than  the  capital.  It  is  a  handsome 
city  of  thirty  thousand  people,  and  possesses  as  perfect 
a  system  for  handling  cargoes  of  shipping  as  exists 
in  the  world. 

The  boatmen  who  infest  the  harbor  of  Callao  are 
licensed  with  a  special  privilege  to  pursue  their  call- 
ing, in  return  for  which  they  constitute  the  naval 
reserve  of  the  republic,  and  are  subject  to  the  call 
of  their  country  at  any  hour.  They  are  hardy,  bold, 
industrious,  and  energetic  in  the  pursuit  of  business ; 
and,  in  their  clamor  and  pushing  for  a  job,  they  resemble 
the  hackmen  at  an  American  railroad  station. 

At  Villegas,  two  miles  above  Callao,  is  the  tomb  of 
Henry  Meiggs,  the  builder  of  the  famous  Oroya  Rail- 
road. Mr.  Meiggs  was  a  native  of  Catskill,  New 
York,  who  met  with  business  reverses  and  went  to 
Chile  in  1854.  He  there  engaged  in  building  bridges 
for  the  Valparaiso  and  Chile  Railroad,  and  later  on 
he  built  at  least  half  a  dozen  railroads  in  Peru. 

His  greatest  work  was  the  building  of  the  Callao, 
Lima,  and  Oroya  Railroad,  a  piece  of  work  which  ranks 


130 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


among  the  most  daring  achievements  of  modern  engineer- 
ing. The  road  ascends  the  mountain  almost  to  its 
summit,  winding  around  the  rocky  spurs  which  jut  out 
at  frequent  intervals,  or  piercing  them  with  tunnels,  of 
which  there  are  thirty-two.  At  one  point  is  an  iron 
bridge  connecting  two  of  these  tunn&ls  at  a  height  of 


A   BRIDGE    IN   THE    MOUNTAINS. 


two  thousand  feet  above  the  chasm  which  it  spans.  In 
the  construction  of  this  bridge  the  workmen  had  to  be  let 
down  with  ropes  from  above,  and  had  to  cut  ledges  in  the 
sides  of  the  mountain  on  which  to  stand  while  doing 
their  work.  The  rock  at  this  point  is  said  to  be 
hard  enough  to  scratch  glass.  This  railroad  is  worth 
all  it  cost,  both  in  money  and  in  skill,  for  it  connects 
Callao  with  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Amazon,  and 
thus  forms  part  of  a  great  system  which  connects  the 


THE    LAND   OF   GOLD   AND   SILVER.  131 

Pacific  and  the  Atlantic  oceans.  It  is  therefore  fitting 
that  the  people  of  Callao  and  the  vicinity  should  have 
erected  the  beautiful  mound  and  cross  at  Villegas 
which  serve  to  perpetuate  the  fame  of  the  builder. 

The  valley  at  Matucana  is  a  wide  bottom-land,  sup- 
porting a  considerable  town.  To  this  place  come  droves 
of  the  pretty  little  llamas  from  the  inner  sierra,  with 
their  burdens  for  the  railroad.  This  remarkable 
animal,  which  has  been  called  "the  camel  of  the 
Andes,"  was  found  by  Pizarro  among  the  Incas,  who 
had  domesticated  it  to  carry  burdens.  It  was  the  only 
beast  so  employed  on  this  continent  before  the  intro- 
duction of  European  civilization. 

Mr.  F.  G.  Carpenter,  writing  in  the  St.  Louis  Times- 
Democrat  of  these  interesting  animals,  says:  "Much 
of  the  freight  that  is  brought  to  Lake  Titicaca  is  on 
llamas.  The  word  is  pronounced  'lyahmah.'  These 
animals  are,  to  a  great  extent,  the  freight  wagons  of 
the  Andes.  You  see  them  by  the  hundreds  everywhere 
on  this  Titicaca  plateau.  I  found  them  loaded  with 
silver  ore  at  the  mines  in  the  mountains  of  central  Peru, 
and  saw  thousands  of  them  feeding  upon  the  pampas 
over  which  I  crossed  on  my  way  here.  They  are  the 
most  graceful  beasts  I  have  ever  seen.  They  walk 
along  the  road  with  their  little  heads  high  up  in  the 
air,  and  seem  to  tread  as  though  they  owned  the  earth. 
They  have  heads  like  a  camel,  bodies  like  sheep,  and 
feet  and  legs  much  like  a  deer.  They  are  not  sulky 
looking,  like  a  camel,  and  are  far  more  aristocratic  in 
their  actions.  When  you  load  a  camel  he  cries  like 
a  baby.  The  tears  roll  down  his  cheeks,  and,  as  he 
marches  off,  he  pouts  and  groans.  The  llama  carries 


132  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN   REPUBLICS. 

his  burden  with  a  proud  air  and  pricks  up  his  ears,  for 
all  the  world  like  a  Skye  terrier,  at  every  new  thing  he 
sees.  He  will  carry  only  so  much,  and  the  usual  load 
for  a  llama  is  one  hundred  pounds.  If  you  put  on 
more,  he  does  not  cry  or  groan,  but  calmly  kneels  down, 
and  will  not  move  until  the  load  is  lightened." 


LLAMAS. 


In  the  north  of  Peru  flows  the  river  Chira,  and  its 
valley  is  well  cultivated  throughout  its  whole  extent. 
The  only  means  of  transportation  at  present  are  mules 
and  donkeys,  which  carry  freight  between  the  planta- 
tions and  the  Paita  and  Piura  Railroad,  of  which  a 
short  section  of  twenty  miles  runs  along  the  side  of  the 
valley. 

There  are  no  highway  roads  in  Peru.  In  no  section 
is  the  freight  of  the  country  hauled  on  wheels,  and 


THE   LAND  OF  GOLD   AND   SILVER.  133 

nowhere  are  passengers  transported  in  stages ;  unless, 
indeed,  we  except  the  very  limited  district  in  the  valley 
of  the  Rimac,  near  Lima.  Everything  in  the  way  of 
supplies  and  exported  produce  is  moved  on  the  backs 
of  mules  and  donkeys ;  passengers  travel  in  the  saddle. 

The  great  and  elaborate  highways,  or  public  roads, 
which  the  historians  tell  us  were  constructed  by  the 
Incas  throughout  their  vast  empire,  have  disappeared, 
leaving  here  and  there  only  short  sections  or  fragments, 
which  hardly  justify  the  praise  that  has  been  bestowed 
on  them. 

"Between  Cuzco  and  the  sweet  valley  of  Yucay 
there  are  numerous  traces  of  an  ancient  road,  some  sec- 
tions of  which  are  perfect.  They  consist  of  a  pathway 
from  ten  to  twelve  feet  wide,  raised  slightly  in  the 
center,  paved  with  stones,  and  the  edges  defined  by 
lines  of  larger  stones  sunk  firmly  in  the  ground. 
Where  this  road  descends  from  the  elevated  puna,  —  a 
sheer  descent  of  almost  four  thousand  feet  into  the 
valley  of  Yucay,  —  it  zigzags  on  a  narrow  shelf  cut  in 
the  face  of  the  declivity  and  supported  here  and  there, 
where  foothold  could  not  otherwise  be  obtained,  by  high 
retaining  walls  of  cut  stone,  looking  as  perfect  and 
firm  as  when  first  built,  centuries  ago." 

The  crossing  of  the  numerous  rivers  has  evidently 
been  a  perplexing  problem  to  the  Peruvians.  As  their 
land  was  destitute  of  timber,  they  resorted  to  sus- 
pension bridges,  formed  of  cables  of  braided  withes 
stretched  from  bank  to  bank  and  supporting  a  floor- 
ing of  wood.  Where  the  banks  are  high,  or  where  the 
streams  are  compressed  between  steep  or  precipitous 
rocks,  these  cables  are  anchored  to  piers  of  stone.  Two 


134  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

smaller  cables  are  sometimes  stretched  on  each  side,  as 
a  guard  or  hand  rail.  Over  these  frail  and  swaying 
structures  pass  men  and  animals,  the  latter  frequently 
with  loads  on  their  backs. 

Returning  to  the  south,  we  must  take  a  passing  glance 
at  the  city  of  Cuzco,  of  which  Marshal  O'Leary  wrote 
to  General  Miller,  during  the  war  of  Peruvian  inde- 
pendence: "Cuzco  interests  me  greatly.  Its  history, 
its  fables,  its  ruins,  are  enchanting.  It  may  with  truth 
be  called  the  Rome  of  the  New  World.  The  immense 
fortress,  on  the  north,  is  its  Capitol.  The  Temple  of 
the  Sun  is  its  Coliseum." 

The  city  stands  at  the  northern  or  most  elevated  end 
of  the  valley,  on  the  lower  slopes  of  three  high  hills, 
where  as  many  rivulets,  coming  together  like  the 
fingers  of  an  outspread  hand,  unite  to  form  the  Cachi- 
mayo,  the  stream  that  disputes  passage  with  the  narrow 
roadway  in  the  Pass  of  Angostura.  Here,  according  to 
the  legend,  St.  James  came  down  to  earth  seated 
on  a  white  horse,  with  lance  in  rest,  turned  the  tide 
of  battle  in  favor  of  the  Spaniards,  and  helped  them 
to  blot  out  forever  the  Inca  power. 

Arequipa  lies  in  the  sierra,  or  high  country  between 
the  coast  range  and  the  central  Cordillera,  and  is  7600 
feet  above  the  sea  level. 

On  the  mountain  peak,  El  Misti,  which  overlooks 
the  city,  Harvard  University  has  established  an  observa- 
tory, which  has  rendered  good  service  to  astronomy. 

Arequipa  is  the  capital  of  a  department  of  the  same 
name,  and  is  connected  with  the  coast  by  a  railroad. 
Its  massive  stone  houses,  spacious  patios,  projecting 
balconies,  enormously  wide  carriage  entrances,  and 


THE    LAND   OF   GOLD   AND   SILVER. 


135 


vaulted  ceilings  recall  the  days  of  Spanish  rule,  of  which 
they  are  the  monuments.  It  is  the  most  pretentious 
city  of  Peru,  outside  of  Lima,  and  is  the  only  place  in 
the  republic,  besides  the  capital,  that  knows  the  luxury 
of  any  wheeled  vehicle  for  purposes  of  pleasure  or  pas- 
senger carriage.  Like  all  Peruvian  towns  its  houses 
are  whitewashed,  and  its  streets  and  sidewalks  narrow 


AREQUIPA. 


and  crooked,  but  it  boasts  the  convenience  of  a  street 
railroad.  Its  population  of  thirty-five  thousand  is 
ambitious  and  not  altogether  patient  under  the  cus- 
tom of  selecting  the  presidents  of  the  republic  from 
Lima. 

Off  the  coast  of  Peru  lie  the  bleak,  but  very  valuable, 
guano  islands.  These  masses  of  rock  are  bare  and 
desolate  except  for  the  shanties  of  the  men  who  dig 


136 


THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


the  beds  of  guano.  This  deposit  makes  an  excellent 
fertilizer,  and  is  exported  in  large  quantities  to  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  Peru  had  to  sacrifice  to  Chile 
this  source  of  wealth,  as  well  as  her  nitrate  of  soda 
deposits,  to  pay  her  enormous  debt  resulting  from  the 
war  of  1879  and  1880. 


A  GUANO    ISLAND. 


Perhaps  the  most  useful  to  mankind  of  all  the  nat- 
ural products  of  Peru  is  the  cinchona,  or  Peruvian 
bark,  from  which  the  drug  quinine  is  extracted.  The 
tree  can  be  found  towering  above  all  other  trees  in  the 
most  inaccessible  spots  in  all  the  mountain  wilderness, 
at  an  elevation  of  from  three  to  five  thousand  feet  above 


"THE   CITY   OF  THE   KINGS."  137 

the  sea.  Petroleum  also  bids  fair  to  be  a  source  of 
wealth  to  Peru,  compensating  to  some  extent  for  the 
loss  of  her  guano  and  nitrate  deposits,  unless  it  should 
form  a  new  temptation  to  the  greed  of  capitalists,  and 
lead  to  another  conquest  by  which  her  extensive  fields 
shall  be  taken  from  her,  as  were  the  nitrate  beds. 

Telegraphs  and  telephones  are  in  general  use  through- 
out Peru  for  the  transmission  of  news  and  business 
communications.  The  long-distance  telephone  is 
almost  exclusively  used  and  has  largely  superseded 
the  telegraph.  It  has  been  introduced  in  the  northern 
department  on  an  extensive  scale  by  Mr.  Emilio  Clark 
of  Piura,  who  has  already  put  up  eight  hundred  miles 
of  telephone  lines  and  is  extending  them  in  several 
directions.  This  advantage  is  appreciated  by  the 
planters,  who  are  thus  enabled  to  put  themselves  into 
close  communication  with  the  rest  of  the  country. 
Along  the  coast  of  Peru  runs  a  submarine  cable,  which 
connects  every  important  port  with  the  rest  of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
"THE  CITY  OF  THE  KINGS." 

FEW  cities  possess  equal  interest  with  Lima,  "  The 
City  of  the  Kings, "which  at  one  time  had  no  rival 
in  wealth  or  importance  in  America  except  the  City 
of  Mexico.  Its  name  signifies  "the  oracle,"  and  is  a 
corruption  of  the  name  of  the  river  Rimac,  on  whose 
banks  it  is  built  five  hundred  feet  above  sea  level. 
It  is  popularly  known  as  the  "Paris  of  America." 


138 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


Its  women  are  beautiful,  graceful,  and  intelligent. 
They  have  the  happy  faculty  of  being  both  gay  and 
dignified.  The  men  are  well  educated  and  have  a 
refinement  that  is  largely  due  to  extensive  travel. 


LIMA  ON   A   HOLIDAY. 


The  houses  in  Lima  are  peculiar  to  the  city.  The 
lower  stories  consist  of  solid  adobe  walls  from  two  to 
four  feet  in  thickness.  When  it  is  necessary  to  add 


"THE   CITY   OF  THE   KINGS."  139 

another  story,  which  is  not  common  with  dwellings,  the 
custom  is  to  build  with  the  light  bamboo  of  Guayaquil 
or  scantling  from  the  northwest  coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica, which  is  treated  with  adobe  and  then  stuccoed  over 
with  plaster,  so  as  to  present  a  handsome  finish.  What 
appear  to  be  massive  towers  are  like  bird  cages,  when 
robbed  of  their  outer  coat.  This  system  of  construction 
has  been  evolved  from  the  experience  with  earthquakes. 
The  massive  wall  answers  to  a  certain  height,  but  above 
that  it  must  be  succeeded  by  the  lightest  structure 
consistent  with  proper  strength. 

The  furnishing  of  a  Lima  house  belonging  to  the 
wealthy  class  is  generally  in  brighter  colors  than  the 
North  American  affects.  Throughout  the  interior  there 
is  a  great  display  of  wealth,  and  the  houses  are  splendid 
palaces.  The  women  are  among  the  most  intelligent 
of  their  sex  in  South  America,  and  are  very  charming 
companions  in  the  drawing-room,  where  the  desire  to 
please  supplements  their  natural  hospitality.  Club 
life  is  an  institution  of  Lima,  as  of  other  civilized  com- 
munities ;  but  the  Lima  gentleman  is  devoted  to  his 
home. 

Lima  is  rich  in  historic  traditions  of  the  Incas  and 
Pizarro,  and  signs  of  its  former  prosperity  and  great- 
ness may  be  seen  on  every  side ;  but  now  it  is  poverty- 
stricken  in  appearance,  and  the  population  has  fallen 
to  one  hundred  and  ten  thousand.  However,  it  is  gen- 
erally admitted  by  travelers  that  Lima  is  one  of  the 
pleasantest  cities  south  of  the  Isthmus  as  a  place  of 
permanent  residence  for  foreigners.  It  is  true  that 
one's  earliest  impressions  of  it  are  usually  disappoint- 
ing; but  that  is  largely  due  to  the  imagination,  which, 


140 


THE  SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


inspired  by  tales  of  the  Incas  and  the  Spanish  conquest, 
has  led  one  to  expect  too  much. 

The  public  amusements  of  Lima  consist  mainly  of 
the  theater,  the  cockfight,  and  the  bullfight.  Its  rank 
in  theater  and  opera  is  of  the  highest  order.  Despite 
the  opposition  of  the  press,  the  bullfight  retains  the 
favor  and  may  be  styled  the  passion  of  the  people. 
Sunday  is  chosen  as  the  day  for  the  exhibition.  Cock- 
fighting  was  formerly  practiced  in  the  streets  and  public 
places.  Many  years  ago  an  attempt  was  made  to 
suppress  it;  but  as  this  was  found  to  be  impossible,  it 

was  decided  to 
regulate  it  by  law 
and  to  confine  the 
exhibition  to  a 
single  building 
erected  for  the 
purpose.  It  is 
now  forbidden  al- 
together. 

In  the  markets 
of  Lima  there  are 
stalls  for  the  prin- 
cipal dealers,  but 
the  mass  of  ven- 
ders, who  are 
women,  squat  on 
the  pavement 

A    BREAD   SELLER.  .    »          i       . 

with  their  fruits 

or  fish  or  vegetables  heaped  in  flat  baskets,  or  on  mats 
placed  before  them.  They  chatter  and  chaff  with  each 
other  and  their  customers.  Spare  moments  are  given 


THE  CITY  OF  THE  KINGS; 


141 


to  the  care  of  their  children,  who  tumble  about  among 
the  baskets  of  fruit  in  a  way  not  at  all  appetizing  to 
purchasers  of  the  goods  among  which  they  play. 

Mr.  Carpenter, 
in  an  article  in  the 
Baltimore  Herald, 
says:  "The young 
women  of  Lima 
are  a  class  nearer 
perfection  in 
beauty  of  form 
than  any  girls  I 
have  ever  seen. 
They  are  straight 
and  shapely,  arid 
their  soft,  round, 
beautiful  faces, 
with  their  luxu- 
riant black  hair 
combed  high  up 
from  the  foreheads,  are  lighted  up  with  eyes  which 
fairly  shine  with  the  souls  of  their  owners. 

"  All  of  the  ladies  of  Lima  dress  in  black  when  they 
go  out  to  walk.  They  do  not  wear  bonnets,  but  wrap 
fine  shawls  of  black  goods  about  their  heads,  pinning 
them  fast  on  their  backs,  so  that  the  face  alone  shows. 
[The  more  becoming  lace  mantillas  have  taken  the  place 
of  the  black  shawls  formerly  worn.]  One  of  the  queer 
sights  of  Lima  is  a  church  congregation.  The  men  sit 
by  themselves ;  and  the  women  and  girls,  all  wearing 
these  black  cloths  on  their  heads,  make  you  think  of 
a  congregation  of  nuns  who  are  dead  to  the  world.  At 


A   MILKWOMAN. 


142  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

their  own  homes  they  are  vivacious  and  charming,  and 
dress  much  like  their  sisters  of  the  rest  of  Christen- 
dom, and  are  as  fond  of  gay  clothes  and  the  latest 
styles  as  our  own  American  girls.  The  woman's-rights 
woman  has,  I  am  told,  not  yet  made  her  way  here, 
though  there  is  a 'movement  toward  giving  women 
employment  in  places  which  were  formerly  exclusively 
held  by  the  men." 

Lima  contains  two  valuable  libraries.  The  National 
Library,  founded  in  1822,  immediately  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  independence,  contained  in  1880  more  than 
60,000  printed  volumes  and  8000  manuscripts.  It  was 
reckoned  by  literary  men  who  had  visited  it,  as  the  best 
in  South  America.  When  the  Chileans  had  possession 
of  Lima,  they  destroyed  the  library,  but  immediatel}7 
upon  the  evacuation  of  the  capital  the  Peruvians  set 
about  its  restoration.  It  was  rededicated  on  the  28th  of 
July,  1884,  with  nearly  28,000  volumes,  which  number 
has  since  been  increased  to  about  40,000.  The  library 
of  the  University  contains  more  than  20,000  volumes. 
The  valuable  scientific  library  of  the  School  of  Mines, 
and  the  library  of  the  national  corps  of  engineers 
and  architects  at  the  National  Palace,  may  also  be 
mentioned. 

The  cathedral,  founded  by  Pizarro,  cost  1600,000, 
and  was  ninety  years  in  building.  It  has  recently  been 
restored  at  the  expense  of  the  government.  It  is  on  the 
general  plan  that  characterizes  all  Spanish  church  archi- 
tecture. Its  fagade,  like  those  of  the  other  churches 
of  Lima,  has  challenged  the  approval  of  severe  critics. 

The  great  bell  of  the  cathedral,  La  Cantabaria,  weighs 
30,000  pounds,  and  is  always  tolled  when  an  earth- 


"THE   CITY   OF   THE    KINGS.' 


143 


quake  trembling  is  felt.  It  is  one  of  the  heaviest 
bells  in  the  world,  and  one  may  well  imagine  the 
solemnity  of  its  awful  tone  when  in  the  middle  of 


PERUVIAN    BOYS    AT    PLAY. 


the  night  one  is  aroused  from  sleep  to  the  terror 
of  approaching  destruction.  The  cathedral  has  also  a 
chapel  and  altar  devoted  to  Santa  Rosa,  the  patron 
saint  of  Peru,  the  only  American  who  has  ever  been 
canonized.  She  was  born  and  died  in  Lima. 


144  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

One  of  the  chief  beauties  of  Lima  is  its  public 
garden,  which,  although  despoiled  by  the  Chileans, 
remains  a  most  beautiful  and  elaborate  pleasure  ground. 
Its  principal  gate  is  an  exquisite  piece  of  work  ; 
the  grounds  are  made  the  sites  of  various  palaces  and 
pavilions  ;  and  all  the  zones  of  the  earth  are  repre- 
sented in  its  flora.  A  magnificent  conservatory  of  ferns 
and  orchids  was  spared  by  the  enemy,  who  carried  away 
the  zoological  collection.  The  place  contains  about 
forty  acres,  in  which  are  pleasant  shaded  walks,  seats, 
and  gas  lamps  for  evening  entertainments.  Montero's 
famous  picture  of  the  obsequies  of  Atahualpa  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  principal  pavilion,  whence  it  was  taken  by 
the  Chileans,  who  afterward  returned  it. 

Both  in  the  capital  and  throughout  the  country, 
schools  are  numerous  and  of  a  high  order.  The  fash- 
ionable school  for  young  ladies  in  Lima  is  the  convent 
of  San  Pedro,  an  ancient  institution,  at  which  the 
daughters  of  wealthy  families  for  many  generations 
have  been  educated  by  the  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 
There  are  various  private  schools  for  boys,  also,  and 
among  the  most  successful  is  a  commercial  high  school 
with  a  three  years'  course,  under  the  direction  of  Rev. 
Dr.  Wood  of  the  Methodist  mission. 

The  University  of  Peru  is  a  venerable  institution, 
—  the  oldest  in  America,  —  having  been  founded  by 
Pizarro  shortly  after  the  conquest  of  the  country.  Its 
schools  of  medicine  and  law  hold  their  charters  from 
Charles  V.  of  Spain,  and  for  many  years  young  men 
from  all  parts  of  the  continent  came  here  for  education. 
There  are  also  general  schools  and  theological  semi- 
naries in  connection  with  several  of  the  monasteries. 


EASTERN    PERU.  145 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
EASTERN  PERU. 

IN  eastern  Peru  we  find  that  the  silent  solitudes  and 
torpor  of  the  tropical  wilderness  seem  to  have  placed  a 
spell  over  life  in  all  its  forms,  while  nature  has  almost 
made  labor  unnecessary  by  that  lavish  abundance  which 
renders  the  problem  of  existence  so  easy  of  solution. 
With  serene  contentment  the  inhabitants  of  this  re- 
gion may  live  without  thought  of  to-morrow,  for  the 
opportunities  of  all  days  are  the  same  to  them. 

Mr.  Courtney  De  Kalb  lately  published  an  excellent 
article  in  Harper's  Magazine,  from  which  we  make  the 
following  extract:  — 

"Eastern  Peru,  though  changing  its  political  title  at 
various  periods,  has  been  called  the  Montana,  or  wooded 
country,  since  the  first  colony  was  planted  there  256 
years  ago.  The  experiences  of  the  early  settlers  were 
an  endless  succession  of  romantic  adventures.  Towns 
were  built  and  destroyed  many  times,  and  there  is 
scarcely  a  single  site  which  has  not  been  bathed  with, 
the  blood  of  whites  and  Indians  through  centuries  of 
conflict.  Spanish  and  Peruvian  possession  of  this  ter- 
ritory has  consequently  been  more  nominal  than  real 
until  within  the  last  twenty-five  or.  thirty  years,  during 
which  time  several  of  the  old  mission  stations  have 
flourished  forth  into  cities  of  from  two  to  six  thousand 
inhabitants,  under  the  commercial  stimulus  given  by 
opening  the  Amazon  to  the  flags  of  all  nations  in  1866. 

"  The  inhabitants  of  eastern  Peru  belong,  almost  with- 
out exception,  to  the  class  of  cholos,  or  half-breeds. 


146 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


The  Indian  element  is  strong  in  the  features  of  this 
mixed  race,  although  at  times  the  Caucasian  blossoms 
out  in  a  clear-cut,  arching  mouth,  a  delicate  face  and 
chin,  and  thin,  aquiline  nose.  The  young  women  pos- 
sess the  feminine  instinct  of  neatness  in  dress  and  love 
of  personal  adornment.  Simple  pink  or  light-blue 
frocks,  trimmed  with  a  bit  of  lace  or  ribbon,  make 


INDIAN    RUBBER   GATHERERS. 


cool,  becoming  costumes.  The  dark  hair  is  secured 
behind  by  a  ribbon,  from  which  it  falls  loosely  down  the 
back.  A  few  pinks  and  rose-buds  half  encircle  the 
head  like  a  broken  wreath.  Out  of  doors  a  Panama 
hat  is  worn  well  down  over  the  eyes,  and  a  thin  blue 
and  white  shawl  invariably  envelops  the  shoulders. 

"The  half-breeds  exceed  the  Indians  in  number 
throughout  eastern  Peru,  which  fact  alone  serves  as 
circumstantial  evidence  of  the  long  and  tedious 


EASTERN    PERU.  147 

endeavor  of  the  whites  to  make  this  land  their  own, 
—  a  struggle  in  which  the  adventurer  must  either 
become  an  exile  or  found  here  his  home.  There  has 
not  been  in  the  past,  nor  is  there  to-day,  any  reluc- 
tance to  intermarriage  between  whites  and  Indians. 
Indeed,  a  foreigner  seldom  remains  here  long  without 
becoming  married.  The  Montana  of  Peru  is  a  lonely 
place.  For  a  man  who  must  live  here  for  years,  apart 
from  friends  and  kindred,  it  certainly  must  become 
fearfully  tiresome.  The  outer  world  almost  loses  its 
reality,  and  passes  from  the  memory  into  the  dimness 
of  a  dream. 

"  The  Indians  are  all  and  always  heavily  in  debt  to 
the  owners  of  the  huts  in  which  they  live,  and,  as  the 
owners  do  not  choose  to  prosecute  them,  they  are  really, 
though  not  nominally,  enslaved.  When  the  young 
Indian  has  grown  large  enough  to  do  what  may  be 
regarded  as  a  man's  work,  he  enters  service.  He 
receives  the  habitual  recompense  of  nine  soles  per 
month.  On  this  sum  he  cannot  live.  The  master 
knows  it,  the  Indian  knows  it;  but  what  is  to  be  done 
when  such  is  the  established  stipend  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  valley?  The  result  is, 
receiving  none  of  the  commonest  necessaries  of  life 
gratuitously,  he  overdraws  from  the  first.  A  strict 
account  is  kept  of  all  that  he  obtains  from  his  master 
of  food,  clothing,  implements,  and  knickknacks,  and 
he  is  compelled  to  work  on  day  after  day  in  satisfaction 
of  the  debt,  which,  with  each  setting  sun,  has  grown 
larger  than  ever.  The  Indian  thus  comes  to  think  of 
himself  as  a  fixture  at  the  chacra  [the  great  homestead]. 
The  magnitude  of  his  debt  does  not  trouble  him.  The 


148  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

more  he  can  induce  his  master  to  let  him  owe,  so  many 
more  of  the  comforts  of  this  world  does  he  enjoy,  and 
so  much  the  greater  is  his  bliss." 

Speaking  of  the  dons,  or  higher  classes  of  eastern 
Peru,  Mr.  De  Kalb  says :  "  It  is  unsafe  to  presume  upon 
the  ignorance  of  these  dons.  Many  a  stranger  who  has 
thought  to  teach  them  how  the  outer  world  thinks  and 
does,  has  ended  by  receiving  additional  information 
upon  the  same  subject  in  return,  coupled  with  reasons 
why  such  principles  cannot  at  present  be  applied  on 
latitude  four  degrees  south.  In  Iquitos,  a  city  of  about 
ten  thousand  inhabitants,  is  one  private  library  of  over 
two  thousand  volumes,  and  several  others  numbering 
their  books  by  the  hundreds.  At  every  hacienda  is  a 
treasured  shelf  full  of  the  works  of  Cervantes,  Quevedo, 
perhaps  a  translation  of  Shakespeare,  of  Alexandre 
Dumas,  a  history  of  Peru,  and  works  of  travel.  No 
mere  ornaments  are  these,  but  veritable  companions  of 
the  long,  lonely  spaces  of  time.  They  are  not  only  read, 
but  studied,  penetrated." 

Still  farther  east  is  the  forest  region  of  the  country, 
inhabited  by  some  thriving  colonies  of  whites  and  by 
unfriendly  savages.  The  Puna,  as  this  section  is 
called,  is  a  cold  and  cheerless  region ;  yet  here  was  the 
seat  of  the  Inca  civilization,  the  highest  development 
this  continent  had  known  at  the  date  of  its  discovery, 
and  probably  the  highest  of  which  the  American  Indian 
was  capable.  Here  is  the  great  Lake  Titicaca,  on  the 
coasts  and  islands  of  which  are  still  to  be  found  the 
ruins  of  that  giant  architecture  which  will  bear  solemn, 
silent  testimony  to  Indian  intelligence  so  long  as  the 
world  stands. 


EASTERN    PERU. 


149 


RUINS   OF  AN    »NCA   PALACE   ON    LAKE   TITICACA. 

In  this  lake  is  the  sacred  island  of  Peru.  To  it  the 
Incas  traced  their  origin,  and  to  this  day  it  is  held  by 
their  descendants  in  profound  veneration. 

According  to  the  current  tradition,  "Manco  Capac 
and  his  wife  and  sister,  children  of  the  Sun,  and  com- 
missioned by  that  luminary,  started  hence  on  their 
errand  of  beneficence  to  reduce  under  government,  and 
to  instruct  in  religion  and  the  arts,  the  savage  tribes 
that  occupied  the  country.  Manco  Capac  bore  a  golden 
rod  and  was  instructed  to  travel  northward  until  he 
reached  the  spot  where  the  rod  should  sink  into  the 
ground,  and  there  fix  the  seat  of  his  empire.  He  obeyed 
the  behest,  traveled  slowly  along  the  western  shore  of 
the  lake,  through  the  broad,  level  puna  lands,  up  the 


150  THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

valley  of  the  Pucura,  to  the  lake  of  La  Raya,  where 
the  basin  of  Titicaca  ends  and  whence  the  waters  of 
the  river  Vilcanota  start  on  their  course  to  swell  the 
Amazon.  He  advanced  down  the  valley  of  that  river 
until  he  reached  the  spot  where  this  region  now  stands, 
when  the  golden  rod  disappeared.  Here  he  fixed  his 
seat,  and  here,  in  time,  rose  the  'City  of  the  Sun,'  the 
capital  of  the  Inca  empire." 

Pedro  de  Leon,  writing  of  this  region,  says :  "  Not  far 
distant  is  the  island  of  Coati,  which  was  sacred  to  the 
Moon,  the  wife  and  sister  of  the  Sun,  on  which  stands 
the  famous  palace  of  the  Virgins  of  the  Sun,  built 
around  the  shrines  dedicated  to  the  Sun  and  the  Moon 
respectively,  and  which  is  one  of  the  best-preserved,  as 
well  as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  remains  of  aborigi- 
nal architecture  on  this  continent.  The  island  of 
Soto  was  the  Isle  of  Penitence,  to  which  the  Incas  of 
the  ruling  race  were  wont  to  resort  for  fasting  and 
humiliation,  and  it  has  also  many  remains  of  ancient 
architecture." 

At  the  head  of  a  deep  bay  on  the  west  side  of  Titi- 
caca is  the  cathedral  city  of  Puno,  with  six  thousand 
inhabitants  living  thirteen  thousand  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  They  are  generally  descendants  of 
Inca  ancestry,  and  they  cherish  the  confident  belief 
that  the  government  of  the  house  of  Atahualpa  will 
yet  be  restored.  The  climate  about  Lake  Titicaca  is 
cold  and  gloomy,  and  the  people  are  miserably  poor. 
Barley  is  their  principal  crop,  and  the  potato  grows 
well,  but  corn  does  not  ripen. 

One  of  the  great  curiosities  of  this  region  is  the 
famous  bridge  of  Apurimac.  The  river  Apurimac  is 


EASTERN    PERU. 


151 


one  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Amazon,  a  large  and  rapid 
stream  flowing  in  a  deep  valley,  or  rather,  gigantic 
ravine,  shut  in  by  high  and  precipitous  mountains. 
Throughout  its  length  it  is  crossed  at  only  a  single 
point,  between  two  enormous  cliffs  which  rise  dizzily 
on  both  sides,  and  from  the  summits  of  which  the 


A   PEON'S   CABIN   WITH    BOYS    IN   THE    STOCKS. 

traveler  looks  down  into  a  dark  gulf.  At  the  bottom 
gleams  a  white  line  of  water,  whence  struggles  up  a 
dull  but  heavy  roar,  giving  to  the  river  its  name,  Apu- 
rimac,  signifying  in  the  Quichua  tongue  "the  great 
speaker."  The  bridge,  looking  like  a  mere  thread,  is 
reached  from  above  by  a  path  which  on  one  side  traces 
a  thin,  white  line  on  the  face  of  the  mountain,  and 


152  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

down  which  the  boldest  traveler  may  hesitate  to  ven- 
ture. This  path,  on  the  other  side,  at  once  disappears 
from  the  rocky  shelf,  where  there  is  just  room  enough 
to  hold  the  hut  of  the  bridge-keeper,  and  then  runs 
through  a  dark  tunnel  cut  in  the  rocks,  from  which  it 
emerges  to  trace  a  steep  and  weary  zigzag  line  up  the 
face  of  the  mountain.  It  is  usual  for  the  traveler  to 
time  his  day's  journey  so  as  to  reach  this  bridge  in  the 
morning,  before  the  strong  wind  sets  in;  for  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  day,  the  wind  sweeps  up  the 
canon  of  the  Apurimac  with  great  force,  making  the 
bridge  sway  like  a  gigantic  hammock,  so  that  crossing 
is  next  to  impossible.  The  bridge  is  148  feet  long,  and 
at  its  lowest  part  118  feet  above  the  river.  The  floor 
is  made  of  small  sticks  and  canes,  fastened  transversely 
with  rawhide  strings. 

In  the  towns  of  eastern  Peru,  as  in  all  other  sections 
of  the  republic,  are  schools  of  considerable  size,  sup- 
ported by  taxation,  aided  by  small  fees  from  the  patrons. 

Of  the  schools  of  Peru,  Mr.  William  E.  Curtis  in 
"Between  the  Andes  and  the  Ocean"  has  recently 
written  as  follows :  — 

"  While  taking  a  trip  over  the  famous  Oroya  road  the 
other  day,  we  visited  a  typical  Peruvian  country  school 
at  the  little  town  of  Chicla,  in  the  heart  of  the  Andes. 
It  occupied  a  low-roofed  mud  hut  adjoining  the  village 
church.  There  were  about  forty  youngsters  of  both 
sexes,  twelve  years  old  and  under,  with  bright,  bead- 
like  eyes,  Indian  features,  stiff,  coarse,  coal-black  hair, 
sturdy  frames,  and  most  of  them  had  intelligent  faces, 
particularly  the  girls,  who  were  more  neatly  dressed 
than  the  boys.  Their  teacher,  from  her  appearance, 


EASTERN    PERU.  153 

was  evidently  a  superior  person,  for  her  complexion 
was  white,  her  manners  were  good,  and  she  seemed  to 
be  well  educated.  The  teacher  of  the  boys'  school  was 
a  dull-looking  fellow,  with  a  low  brow  and  a  furtive 
eye,  who  wore  a  sarepa,  or  shawl,  around  his  throat  and 
face,  and  kept  his  hat  on  in  the  schoolroom,  as  if  suffer- 
ing from  cold.  The  alcalde  of  the  village  happened  to 
be  present  superintending  some  repairs  upon  the  build- 
ing, whose  crumbling  walls  were  being  reen forced  by 
fresh  coats  of  mud,  that  was  mixed  under  his  direction 
in  the  courtyard.  The  schoolhouse  was  as  rude  as  a 
'dugout '  on  the  prairies  of  Kansas  in  early  days.  The 
only  furniture  was  a  long  table  in  the  center,  and  three 
or  four  long  benches  without  backs'.  The  wall  was 
decorated  with  large  cards,  upon  which  the  alphabet, 
the  diphthongs,  ,and  words  of  one  syllable  were  printed 
for  the  benefit  of  pupils  whose  education  had  not  yet 
reached  the  period  of  books.  With  glowing  pride  the 
teacher  called  up  his  prize  pupils,  and  had  them  point 
out  upon  an  illustrated  chart  the  different  forms  of 
money,  weights,  and  measures  used  in  Peru.  Then 
the  children  gathered  in  the  patio  and  sang  the  national 
hymn  for  us,  after  which  we  took  their  photographs  col- 
lectively, and  threw  pennies  into  the  air  for  them  to 
scramble  after." 


154  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

CHAPTER  XX. 
HISTORICAL  SKETCH   OF  BOLIVIA. 

BOLIVIA  was  the  name  given  in  honor  of  Simon 
Bolivar  to  a  state  formed,  in  1825,  from  the  province 
of  Upper  Peru,  which  formerly  constituted  a  part  of 
the  viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Aires. 

Probably  the  oldest  civilized  empire  in  America 
existed  in  the  Titicaca  basin ;  but  we  know  of  it  only 
by  vague  traditions  and  by  the  ruins  of  this  ancient 
civilization  which  still  ^remain.  It  appears  to  have 
been  broken  up  about  the  eighth  century.  The  Aymara 
Indians  remained  in  the  Bolivian  highlands  and  retained 
some  measure  of  civilization.  They  were  subdued  in 
the  fourteenth  century  by  the  Incas  of  Cuzco.  After 
the  Inca  empire  had  been  overturned  by  Francisco 
Pizarro,  he  sent  his  brother,  Hernando,  to  annex  this 
southern  region;  and  in  1559,  it  was  formed  into  the 
district  or  high  court  of  Charcas,  or  Upper  Peru. 

It  was  governed  by  judges,  who  resided  at  a  town 
that  occupied  the  site  of  the  modern  city  of  Sucre,  and 
was  at  first  subject  to  the  viceroy  of  Peru ;  but  in 
1776  Charcas  was  made  a  province  of  the  new  vice- 
royalty  of  Buenos  Aires.  The  rich  silver  mines  gave 
this  region  a  special  importance  with  Spain ;  but  here, 
as  elsewhere,  the  colonists  and  especially  the  Indians 
had  much  cause  for  discontent. 

Previous  to  the  Spanish  conquest,  in  1532,  when 
Peru  and  Bolivia  were  under  the  imperial  sway  of  the 
Incas,  gold  was  regarded  as  a  sacred  metal,  and  was 
used  almost  exclusively  by  the  Incas  in  the  adornment 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF   BOLIVIA.  155 

of  their  royal  palaces,  temples,  and  the  sacred  vest- 
ments of  the  royal  household.  Unconscious  of  its 
value,  the  Incas  sought  gold,  not  for  gain,  but  out  of 
loyalty  to  their  rulers  and  from  a  deep  devotion  to 
their  chief  deity,  the  sun,  to  whose  worship  their  gold 
was  mainly  consecrated. 

Traditions  of  the  Quichua  and  Aymara  Indians  and 
the  oldest  obtainable  records,  reaching  back  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century,  as  well  as  recent  explora- 
tions, all  agree  that  the  northwest  provinces  of  Bolivia, 
especially  the  province  of  Larecaja,  are  rich  in  gold 
deposits ;  and  that,  though  the  Incas  secured  consider- 
able quantities  of  this  metal  from  Peru,  these  provinces 
were  the  principal  source  whence  came  the  gold  that 
excited  the  greed  of  the  early  Spaniards. 

Long  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards  the  town  of 
Llabaya,  in  the  province  of  Larecaja,  was  the  seat  of 
certain  nobles  or  chiefs  of  the  empire,  who  were  charged 
with  the  duty  of  forwarding  the  quarterly  gold  contribu- 
tion of  that  district  to  Chiquitos,  Peru,  where  one 
of  the  receipt  boxes  of  the  empire  was  located.  The 
record  shows  that  on  the  day  of  the  full  moon  of  each 
quarter,  the  expedition  intrusted  with  this  remittance 
from  Llayaba  set  out  without  fail  for  Chiquitos,  and 
was  received  with  demonstrations  of  joy  in  the  several 
villages  through  which  it  passed.  The  amount  of 
these  quarterly  contributions  is  unknown,  but  as  the 
gold  was  carried  in  twelve  llama  bladders  holding  from 
*four  to  five  pounds  each,  the  amount  can  be  esti- 
mated. Llama  bladders  are  still  used  by  the  Indians 
in  transporting  gold. 

The  early  history  of  Bolivia  is  closely  connected  with 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF   BOLIVIA.  157 

that  of  Peru;  so  our  attention  will  now  be  directed 
principally  to  the  more  recent  conditions. 

After  their  conquest  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  the  people  were  subjected  to  a  system 
of  oppression  which  has  few  parallels  in  the  history 
of  the  world.  They  were  treated  little  better  than 
beasts  of  burden.  It  was  their  labor  that  dug  out 
the  gold  and  silver  from  the  mines,  that  cultivated 
the  lands,  that  tended  the  large  flocks  and  herds, 
and  performed  all  domestic  and  menial  services. 
The  owners  of  mines  and  land  claimed  the  right  to 
the  personal  service  of  the  Indian  population  that 
surrounded  the  district  in  which  their  property  was 
located. 

A  certain  number  of  Indians  were  annually  chosen 
from  the  district,  by  lot,  to  serve  these  landowners. 
Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  effects  of  such  a  rule 
from  the  fact  that  1400  mines  were  registered  in  Peru 
alone,  and  that  every  mine  which  remained  unworked 
for  a  year  and  a  day  became  the  property  of  the  first 
claimant.  So  greatly  did  the  Indians,  upon  whom  the 
lot  fell,  dread  the  labor  in  the  mines  that  they  con- 
sidered it  equal  to  a  sentence  of  death,  and  made  all 
arrangements  accordingly.  No  less  than  12,000  Indians 
were  annually  required  under  this  usage  to  work  in 
the  mines  of  Potosi  alone;  and  it  is  estimated  that 
in  the  mines  of  Peru  about  8,000,000  Indians  have 
perished  in  performing  this  work  for  their  taskmasters. 
The  government  also  required  every  Indian  between 
the  ages  of  eighteen  and  fifty-five  to  pay  a  poll  tax  of 
eight  dollars.  This  was  levied  with  rigor,  and  served 
often  as  the  means  of  great  injustice. 


158  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

For  this  reason  the  war  of  independence  was  carried 
on  by  the  people  of  Bolivia  with  the  greatest  zeal,  and 
they  were  aided  by  the  neighboring  peoples  of  the  Rio 
de  la  Plata  and  Peru.  All  of  these  had  equal  cause  to 
avenge  themselves  on  their  oppressors,  and  an  almost 
uninterrupted  war  was  carried  on  between  1809  and 
1825.  A  revolt  in  1809  was  speedily  crushed,  and 
patriot  invading  armies  from  Buenos  Aires  and  from 
Peru  through  the  next  decade  were  repulsed  by  the 
Spaniards.  Thus  Charcas  was  the  last  region  in  South 
America  to  be  freed  from  Spanish  troops.  This  was 
effected  only  after  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  Span- 
iards in  Peru.  In  1824,  after  a  battle  in  Lower  Peru, 
Sucre,  whose  valor  had  been  of  great  assistance  to  the 
patriots'  success,  marched  with  a  part  of  the  victorious 
army  into  Upper  Peru.  The  news  of  his  victory  caused 
an  uprising  of  the  patriots,  and  in  a  very  short  time 
the  entire  province  of  La  Paz  was  in  their  possession. 
In  March,  1825,  the  Spanish  general,  mortally  wounded 
in  action,  was  obliged  to  surrender. 

General  Sucre  was  given  supreme  command  of  Upper 
Peru  until  the  country  could  form  and  accept  a  consti- 
tution. In  1825  it  was  decided  that  Upper  Peru  should 
constitute  a  distinct  and  separate  nation,  and  the  name 
of  Bolivia  was  afterward  given  to  the  new  country. 
At  the  same  time  a  formal  declaration  of  independence 
was  issued.  General  Sucre  was  chosen  president  for 
life,  but  accepted  the  appointment  for  two  years  only, 
with  the  expressed  condition  that  2000  Colombian 
troops  should  be  allowed  to  remain  with  him. 

The  independence  of  the  country,  so  dearly  bought, 
did  not  secure  for  it  a  peaceful  future.  There  were 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF   BOLIVIA. 


159 


constant  insurrections  until  the  end  of  1828,  when 
General  Sucre  and  his  Colombian  troops  were  driven 
from  La  Paz.  These  outbreaks  on  the  part  of  the 
people  were  kept  up  at  various  intervals  until  1871, 
when  President  Morales  was  elected.  The  military 
system  of  government  has  now  been  changed,  and  the 


ON   THE    ROAD   TO   LA   PAZ. 


disordered  condition  of  the  republic  has  been  straight- 
ened out;  but  these  political  changes  and  internal 
conflicts  have  kept  Bolivia  far  behind  its  neighbors  in 
developing  its  great  natural  wealth  and  resources. 

In  April,  1873,  Don  Adolfo  Ballivian  was  chosen 
successor  to  General  Morales ;  but  he  died  in  less  than 
a  year  and  was  succeeded,  without  an  election,  by  Dr. 


160    '  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Thomas  Frias,  at  that  time  president  of  the  council  of 
state.  In  about  two  years  a  new  insurrection  occurred ; 
Dr.  Frias  was  deposed  by  the  troops,  and  General  Daza, 
then  commander  of  the  army,  was  proclaimed  president 
by  the  soldiers.  An  alliance  had  been  formed  with 
Peru,  and  late  in  1878  the  two  countries  became 
involved  in  a  war  with  Chile. 

Bolivia  and  Peru  combined  were  in  no  condition  to 
cope  with  the  resolute  and  well-equipped  armies  of 
Chile.  After  a  year  and  a  half  of  conflict,  the  Chileans 
had  taken  the  valuable  nitrate  deposits  and  so  much 
country  along  the  coast  that  Bolivia  was  left  without 
any  access  to  the  sea,  and  under  the  necessity  of  con- 
ducting her  commerce  through  the  territory  of  neigh- 
boring nations.  Enraged  at  their  losses,  the  Bolivians 
rose  in  insurrection  and  deposed  Daza,  and  in  1880 
Dr.  Narciso  Campero  was  elected  president  by  Congress. 

Campero's  government  lasted  through  four  years,  but 
he  found  himself  unable  to  continue  the  war  with  Chile. 
Peru  being  powerless  to  aid,  Bolivia  made  a  separate 
peace  with  Chile,  giving  up  all  her  coast  line  and 
most  of  her  nitrate  of  soda  deposits  in  Atacama  and 
Antofagasta. 

The  territory  thus  rent  from  Bolivia  has  an  area  of 
70,181  square  miles  and  a  population  of  perhaps  6000 
inhabitants.  This  loss  leaves  the  present  area  of  the 
republic,  according  to  the  last  official  enumeration, 
made  between  1890  and  1894,  as  567,360  square  miles 
—  a  country  of  vast  extent. 


THE   INLAND   REPUBLIC.  161 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

THE   INLAND   REPUBLIC. 

THE  great  inland  republic  of  Bolivia  occupies  an 
area  greater  than  that  of  any  single  country  of  Europe, 
with  the  exception  of  Russia,  and  greater  than  the 
combined  area  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany, 
Belgium,  Switzerland,  and  Greece. 

The  Bolivian  Handbook  says:  "The  population  is 
fixed  by  the  best  Bolivian  authorities,  official  and 
otherwise,  at  about  2,500,000  inhabitants.  The  popu- 
lation consists  of  native  whites,  chiefly  descendants 
of  the  Spanish  settlers;  resident  Europeans;  Mestizos 
or  Cholos  (mixed  white  and  Indian);  and  Indians  of 
pure  blood  belonging  to  the  Inca  races,  —  in  about  the 
following  proportions:  whites,  600,000;  Mestizos  or 
half-breeds,  700,000;  Indians  in  a  domesticated  state, 
960,000;  Indians  in  a  savage  state,  240,000,  making  a 
total  of  2,500,000. 

"The  half-breed  population  of  Bolivia  numbers  one- 
half  that  of  the  Irica  Indians.  They  are  part  negro 
and  part  Indian,  powerful  in  frame  and  intelligent, 
but  cunning  and  unreliable.  Then  there  is  also  the 
mulatto,  or  offspring  of  the  Spaniard  and  the  Inca;  and 
the  Cholos,  the  descendants  of  the  Spaniards  and  the 
Inca  Indians.  The  last  class  are  chiefly  occupied  in 
mining.  It  is  to  the  Cholos  that  Bolivia  owes  its 
political  independence." 

Bolivia  may  be -divided  into  two  distinct  regions: 
the  mountainous  region  of  the  western  half  of  the 
republic,  where  the  principal  settlements  are  located, 


162  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

and  the  vast  low  plain,  covered  with  tropical  forests 
and  thinly  settled,  in  the  eastern  part.  The  mountain 
country  has  a  cold  or  a  mild  climate,  according  to  the 
elevation.  In  Bolivia  are  some  of  the  highest  moun- 
tains of  the  American  continent  and  one  of  the  greatest 
continuous  snow  ranges  in  the  world.  The  peaks  of  this 
range  have  an  average  altitude  of  about  20,000  feet. 
Between  these  lofty  mountains  may  be  found  deep 
and  fertile  valleys  with  a  half-tropical  climate,  which 
form  the  best  farming  and  fruit-growing  districts  of 
the  country.  The  beautiful  and  majestic  peak  called 
Illampu  rises  to  an  altitude  of  25,000  feet.  Its  snow- 
covered  sides  and  smoking  crater  make  it  one  of  the 
most  conspicuous  mountains  of  the  western  chain. 
From  its  base  flow  numerous  streams  of  hot  water, 
which  are  used  by  the  natives  for  cooking  purposes, 
to  the  saving  of  their  labor  and  fuel. 

Perhaps  the  easiest  way  for  a  visitor  to  reach  Bolivia 
is  by  way  of  Mollendo,  a  seaport  town  in  Peru.  From 
this  place  one  may  take  a  railway,  which  was  built  by 
the  enterprising  Mr.  Meiggs.  Many  of  the  con- 
veniences of  travel  have  been  introduced  on  this 
line,  and  it  is  a  great  improvement  upon  mule-back 
riding  over  a  thirsty  desert  and  through  the  dizzy 
passes  of  the  Andes. 

Mr.  William  E.  Curtis  says:  "This  railroad  is  re- 
markable for  running  nearer  the  stars  than  almost  any 
other  railway,  for  where  it  passes  over  the  western 
range  of  the  Andes,  into  the  great  basin  of  the 
southern  continent,  the  track  is  14,765  feet  above  the 
sea;  and  the  only  higher  point  at  which  a  wheel  was 
ever  turned  by  steam  is  where  another  Peruvian  rail- 


THE    INLAND   REPUBLIC. 


163 


way  tunnels  the  Andes.  No  other  long  road  can  show 
an  equal  amount  of  excavation  nor  such  massive  em- 
bankments; and  the  engineering  difficulties  overcome 
in  its  construction  were  enormous. 


GALERA  TUNNEL. 
The  highest  point  reached  by  a  railroad  in  the  world. 

"To  reach  La  Paz,  the  former  seat  of  government 
and  capital  of  Bolivia,  one  must  cross  Lake  Titicaca, 
one  of  whose  islands  was  the  legendary  Eden  of  the 
Incas,  and  around  whose  shores  clustered  the  prehis- 


164 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


toric  cities  which  the  Spaniards  destroyed.  Here  one 
may  take  a  steamer,  at  any  rate  that  is  what  the  people 
call  it,  although  it  would  amuse  a  North  American,  and 

usually  excites 
a  nervous  ap- 
prehension in 
the  minds  of 
timid  trav- 
elers. 

"  If  one  does 
not  care  to 
board  this 
unique  craft, 
or  if  he  wishes 
to  depart  from 
the  regular 
route  of  travel 
and  make  a 
cruise  among 
the  ruined 
cities  of  the 
Incas,  he  can 
hire  what  is 
called  a  balsa, 

a  curious  combination  of  raft,  flatboat,  and  catamaran, 
which  is  propelled  by  a  large  sail  and  by  long  poles." 

The  political  and  social  capital  is  the  city  of  Sucre, 
named  in  honor  of  General  Sucre,  the  first  president  of 
the  republic.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  the  archbishopric 
of  La  Plata  and  Charcas,  founded  in  1609,  and  contains 
a  magnificent  cathedral  and  several  imposing  churches 
and  convents.  Sucre  was  originally  built  in  1539, 


A   BALSA  ON   LAKE  TITICACA. 


THE   INLAND    REPUBLIC.  165 

on  the  site  of  an  old  Peruvian  town,  and  in  1609  it 
was  made  the  seat  of  the  supreme  court  of  justice  for 
all  Spain's  South  American  colonies.  Its  university  is 
still  of  some  importance  as  one  of  the  great  educational 
forces  of  the  country. 

There  are  no  better  farming  lands  in  the  world  than 
those  of  eastern  Bolivia  and  the  warm  valleys  of  the 
mountain  regions.  The  earth  yields  her  fruits,  both 
the  cultivated  and  the  spontaneous,  in  such  rich 
abundance  that  Bolivia  is  not  likely  to  become  a 
profitable  market  for  the  surplus  farm  products  of  other 
nations. 

While  it  is  true  that  considerable  flour  is  at  present 
imported  from  Chile  and  California,  it  is  almost  a  cer- 
tainty that,  within  a  few  years,  the  supply  of  Bolivian 
wheat  will  be  large  enough  to  meet  the  local  demand. 
On  the  other  hand,  although  farming  in  Bolivia  affords 
immense  possibilities,  and  the  soil  is  capable  of  yield- 
ing an  enormous  annual  surplus  of  farm  products,  the 
primitive  methods  of  farming,  the  indifference  of  the 
farming  classes  to  the  advantages  of  improved  agricul- 
tural machinery,  the  inland  position  of  the  country,  and 
the  great  cost  of  transportation  under  existing  condi- 
tions, prevent  the  cultivation  of  products  for  export. 
It  is  equally  certain  that  until  the  steam  train  displaces 
the  mule  train  in  the  overland  traffic  of  the  country, 
and  the  balsa  and  the  canoe  of  the  Indian  give  way  to 
the  steamboat,  Bolivia  cannot  hope  to  take  a  prominent 
place  among  the  agricultural  countries  of  America. 

Most  of  the  farms  of  Bolivia  are  owned  by  the  Indian 
communities  or  by  wealthy  townspeople.  Nearly  all 
the  cultivation  is  done  by  the  Indians.  Oxen  are  yoked 


166 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


by  lashing  a  light  crosspiece  of  wood  immediately 
behind  the  horns.  To  this  rude  yoke  is  fastened  the 
long  beam  of  the  wooden  plow,  which  is  almost  exactly 
like  those  used  by  the  people  of  Egypt  thousands  of 
years  ago.  It  has  but  a  single  handle,  and  a  flat  piece 


THRESHERS. 


of  iron  is  fastened  with  rawhide  at  the  point  of  the 
crooked  stick.  This  cuts  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  about 
six  inches.  Clods  are  broken  by  hand,  and  the  ground 
is  further  prepared  by  dragging  a  heavy  tree  over  it 
until  the  soil  becomes  smooth.  When  the  grain  is 
harvested,  it  is  threshed  out  with  flails  and  cleaned  by 
the  action  of  the  wind. 


THE    INLAND    REPUBLIC. 


167 


The  products  of  the  soil  that,  in  the  near  future,  are 
most  certain  to  become  important  factors  in  the  indus- 
trial wealth  of  the  country  are  those  of  the  forest, 
rather  than  the  field.  Many  valuable  forms  of  orna- 
mental wood,  such  as  mahogany,  rosewood,  vegetable 
ivory,  and  tortoise-shell  wood,  are  here  found  in  great 
abundance.  India-rubber  and  cocoanut-palm  trees  are 
innumerable.  The  chief  cultivated  plants,  on  the 
cleared  plains  of  the  selvas,  are  coffee,  sugar  cane, 
cotton,  tobacco,  in- 
digo, and  spices. 

The  soft  wool  of 
the  vicuna  is  a  valu- 
able article  of  export 
from  Bolivia.  This 
animal,  which  is  not 
unlike  the  domesti- 
cated llama,  roams 
wild  in  the  high 
mountain  regions  and 
is  much  sought  after 
by  hunters. 

Llamas  are  exten- 
sively used  in  Boli- 
via, because  in  these 
elevated  regions  it 
is  difficult  for  either 
horses  or  mules  to  ex- 
ist, the  air  being  too 
rare  for  them.  Horses  are  not  often  seen  ;  mules  are  kept 
only  for  the  accommodation  of  travelers,  and  their  nos- 
trils are  split  so  as  to  make  it  easier  for  them  to  breathe. 


A  VICUNA. 


168  THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  physical  features  of  the  country  are  such  as  to 
admit  of  few  wagon  roads  east  of  the  high  table-lands 
of  western  Bolivia.  The  best  roads  are  constructed 
by  the  government  and  maintained  by  Indian  labor. 
These  are  in  the  upper  Andes,  and  are  for  the  exclusive 
use  of  pack  animals.  Over  these  trails  large  numbers 
of  mules  and  llamas  toil  daily  up  and  down  through 
deep  and  narrow  passes  and  around  sharp  and  dangerous 
turns  in  the  mountain  sides.  Their  loads  consist  of 
the  products  of  the  interior  districts ;  and  in  this  way 
the  commerce  of  Bolivia  is  carried  on.  Most  of  the 
drivers  of  the  pack  animals  are  Indians,  and  the  chief 
materials  in  their  burdens  are  precious  metals,  vicuna 
and  alpaca  wool,  coffee,  cacao,  and  cinchona  bark. 

Some  of  the  social  customs  of  the  country  are  pecul- 
iar. When  a  young  man  in  Bolivia  falls  in  love,  he 
does  not  call  at  the  home  of  the  lady,  but  writes  her 
a  letter,  or  indites  a  poem  to  her,  or  buys  a  bunch  of 
flowers  done  up  in  an  elaborate  horn-shaped  package 
of  lace  paper,  and  sends  them  through  one  of  the 
servants  of  her  family.  When  he  meets  her  in  the 
plaza  or  the  alameda,  clinging  to  her  father's  arm, 
or  under  the  vigilant  chaperonage  of  her  mother,  he 
casts  lingering  glances  of  adoration  into  her  coal-black 
eyes.  In  his  letter  he  tells  her  that  he  will  promenade 
the  pavement  opposite  her  father's  house  at  three  o'clock 
on  the  next  afternoon ;  and  if  she  shows  her  approval  of 
his  attentions  by  presenting  herself  at  the  window,  he 
confides  his  love  to  his  father  or  some  sympathetic  rela- 
tive, who  conveys  a  formal  proposal  of  marriage  to  her 
parents.  If  he  is  accepted  and  the  stipulations  are 
satisfactory,  he  is  allowed  to  call  upon  her;  but  her 


GOLD-MINING    IN    BOLIVIA.  169 

mother,  or  some  duenna,  is  always  present  during  his 
visits;  and  the  arrangements  for  the  wedding  follow 
as  rapidly  as  possible. 

When  a  Bolivian  desires  to  pay  a  social  call  upon  a 
family  of  his  acquaintance,  he  must  first  ask  for  the 
gentleman  of  the  house,  and  if  he  is  not  at  home,  the 
visitor  must  leave  cards  and  retire.  If  the  host  is  in, 
the  visitor  asks  permission  to  see  the  ladies,  which  is 
readily  granted;  but  it  would  be  the  height  of  impro- 
priety to  ask  for  them  unless  the  husband  or  father  is 
at  home. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

GOLD-MINING  IN  BOLIVIA. 

FROM  the  references  already  made  to  the  Incas  and 
their  skill  in  the  working  of  precious  metals,  it  will 
readily  be  seen  that  they  must  have  had  access  to  large 
sources  of  supply,  or  the  articles  which  have  created 
so  much  astonishment,  both  in  the  old  world  and  the 
new,  could  not  have  been  so  numerous  and  so  mag- 
nificent as  they  are.  With  their  rude  tools  they  were 
able  only  to  skim  the  surface  of  the  vast  gold  deposits 
of  the  country.  Yet  history  furnishes  no  parallel  to 
such  treasures  of  gold  as  were  found  in  the  royal  pal- 
aces, temples,  and  public  edifices  of  the  Incas  at  the  time 
of  the  Spanish  conquest.  The  traces  of  their  works 
which  still  remain,  together  with  their  Vude  mining  tools 
of  wood  and  stone,  demonstrate  that  gold  was  gathered 
by  the  Incas  almost  exclusively  from  the  deposits  of  the 


170  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

mountain  streams,  or  from  shallow  excavations  made  in 
the  rugged  sides  of  the  Cordilleras.  Their  most  ad- 
vanced apparatus  for  smelting  consisted  of  small,  cone- 
shaped  furnaces,  built  at  elevated  points  where  they 
might  be  fanned  by  the  mountain  breezes. 

The  sudden  destruction  of  their  empire  in  1532,  the 
sacking  of  their  cities  and  temples,  the  assassination  of 
their  emperor  Atahualpa,  and  the  hardships  to  which 
they  were  subjected  by  their  conquerors,  led  the  Incas 
to  attach  a  new  importance  to  the  precious  metals,  and 
to  conceal  their  rich  treasures  with  all  possible  haste. 
The  amount  of  gold  and  silver  thus  buried  in  caves 
and  forests  far  exceeded  in  quantity  that  which  was 
taken  by  the  Spaniards. 

Disheartened  by  the  fierce  intimidations  to  which 
they  were  subjected,  and  no  longer  permitted  to  gather 
gold  for  the  decoration  of  their  palaces  and  temples,  the 
Incas  practically  abandoned  all  forms  of  gold  and  silver 
mining  until  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  a 
period  of  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years. 

About  this  time  Sorata,  the  present  capital  of  Larecaja, 
was  founded,  and  it  soon  became  the  wealthiest  city 
of  what  is  now  Bolivia.  An  expedition  of  Spaniards, 
mainly  from  Chile,  and  a  few  Portuguese  adventurers 
who  had  ascended  the  Amazon  from  Brazil,  visited  the 
province  of  Larecaja  not  long  after  and  discovered  the 
famous  gold  deposits  of  the  Tipuani  River  on  the  east- 
ern slope  of  the  Andes,  from  whose  sands  the  Incas 
had  washed  thousands  of  ounces  of  gold  before  their 
overthrow.  This  marked  the  beginning  of  the  first  or- 
ganized gold-mining  venture  ever  undertaken  in  Bolivia. 
So  rich  were  the  deposits  then  discovered,  that  Seiior 


GOLD-MINING    IN    BOLIVIA.  171 

Tomas  Rada,  writing  of  their  new  discoveries  to  a  friend 
of  his,  an  expert  miner  of  Chile,  said :  "  We  have  found 
abundant  gold  in  these  kingdoms  on  the  other  side 
beyond  the  snows,  where  foot  traveling  is  difficult.  If 
you  should  wish  to  come  here,  you  will  get  gold  to 
your  heart's  content." 

Mining  operations  in  northwestern  Bolivia  were 
rapidly  multiplied,  and  through  the  richness  of  the 
mines  and  the  unpaid  labor  of  the  Indian  miners  vast 
fortunes  were  quickly  accumulated.  It  was  at  this 
period  that  the  annual  sale  of  gold  was  established,  and 
became  the  one  great  feature  of  the  fairs  or  feasts  held 
at  several  of  the  Indian  villages  of  the  province  of  Lare- 
caja.  So  much  gold  was  offered  on  these  occasions  that 
it  was  sold  at  fifteen  pesos  per  ounce,  a  sum  equal  to  a 
little  over  ten  dollars  of  our  money,  or  to  about  one- 
half  the  current  market  price. 

The  Indians,  smarting  under  the  oppressive  rule, 
destroyed  Sorata  in  1781,  killed  the  Spanish  proprietors 
and  miners,  and  practically  put  an  end  to  the  business 
that  made  them  slaves. 

It  was  not  until  1805  that  work  was  again  undertaken 
in  this  district.  Senor  Yriondo,  a  Spaniard,  then  led  a 
new  expedition  into  this  field  and  began  work  at  a  point 
called  Ancota.  Despite  the  primitive  methods  employed, 
Ancota  yielded  steadily,  for  the  next  sixty  years,  a  net 
annual  profit  of  from  forty  to  sixty  per  cent  on  the 
capital  invested.  The  fabulous  stories  of  the  results 
obtained  during  this  period  have  given  to  Tipuani  a 
world- wide  fame ;  but  it  may  be  well  to  add  that,  al- 
though the  amount  of  gold  secured  by  Senor  Villamil, 
who  operated  the  mines  during  a  period  of  ten  years,  is 


172 


THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


generally  placed  at  five  thousand  pounds,  the  fact  is  that 
the  yield  was  but  fifteen  hundred  pounds  —  an  amount 
equal,  however,  to  an  enormous  annual  profit. 

Rich  as  Bolivia  is  in  gold,  it  is  far  richer  in  silver. 
But  it  is  well  understood  by  those  acquainted  with  the 


A   COPPER-MINING   TOWN. 


country  and  its  environments,  that  its  situation,  five 
hundred  miles  from  the  Pacific  coast,  makes  the  cost  of 
transporting  machinery  and  other  materials  necessary 
to  successful  mining  operations  so  great  that  these 
rich  deposits  offer  inducements  only  to  large  capital 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF   BRAZIL  173 

and  the  best  possible  management.  All  the  silver 
mines  of  Bolivia  now  worked  under  favorable  conditions 
are  paying  handsomely,  while  all  others  are  unprofit- 
able. The  famous  mountain  of  Potosi  produced,  in 
twenty  years,  nearly  three  billion  dollars'  worth  of 
silver. 

The  copper  mines  of  La  Paz  are  among  the  richest 
in  the  world;  and  the  annual  copper  production  is  now 
about  four  thousand  tons.  Tin  ore  is  also  found  along 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  Bolivian  table-land,  from  the 
neighborhood  of  Lake  Titicaca  to  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  the  republic.  The  total  exportation  of  tin  ore 
from  Bolivia,  at  the  present  time,  is  about  five  hundred 
tons  per  month. 

Rich  deposits  of  bismuth,  mercury,  platinum,  lead, 
zinc,  nickel,  and  iron  have  also  been  discovered ;  and 
precious  stones,  such  as  the  emerald  and  the  opal,  have 
been  found  in  large  numbers  and  of  fine  quality.  Bo- 
livia is  destined  to  add  much  to  the  wealth  of  the  world 
in  these  particulars  in  the  not  far  distant  future. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF   BRAZIL. 

PINZON,  one  of  the  companions  of  Columbus,  sailing 
under  the  Spanish  flag,  had  the  honor  of  first  discover- 
ing the  Western  hemisphere  south  of  the  equator.  On 
the  26th  of  January,  1500,  he  discovered  what  is  now 
known  as  Cape  St.  Augustine,  a  headland  just  south  of 


174  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

the  present  city  of  Pernambuco.  On  the  same  voyage  he 
found  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon ;  but  this  vast  country 
of  Brazil  was  destined  to  be  the  only  South  American 
territory  to  escape  the  greedy  grasp  of  Spain.  Only 
ninety  days  after  this  discovery  by  Pinzon,  a  Portu- 
guese fleet  of  thirteen  vessels  on  its  way  to  India  by 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  under  the  command  of  Cabral, 
accidentally  sighted  the  South  American  shore  about 
eight  degrees  south  of  Cape  St.  Augustine. 

By  a  previous  agreement  all  heathen  lands  that  might 
be  discovered  in  the  Western  world  east  of  "the  line  of 
demarcation,"  which  was  located  370  leagues  west  of 
the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  were  to  belong  to  Portugal. 
All  heathen  lands  west  of  this  line  became  the  property 
of  Spain.  When  Cabral  discovered  this  strange  land, 
he  believed  that  it  lay  east  of  this  line;  and  he  was 
right  in  his  conclusion.  In  this  way  Brazil  became  a 
Portuguese  country,  while  all  the  rest  of  South  America 
fell  to  the  share  of  Spain,  so  far  as  she  was  able  to 
occupy  it. 

Cabral  called  the  new  country  Vera  Cruz.  He  at 
once  sent  a  small  vessel  back  to  Lisbon  to  announce 
his  discovery,  and,  without  making  any  settlement, 
proceeded  on  his  way  to  India. 

On  the  arrival  of  the  news  in  Portugal,  Emanuel, 
king  of  Portugal,  invited  Americus  Vespucius  to  enter 
his  service,  and  sent  him  with  three  vessels  to  explore 
the  country.  This  navigator's  first  voyage  was  unsuc- 
cessful, but  in  a  second  he  discovered  a  safe  port,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  All  Saints.  He  remained 
there  five  months  and  maintained  a  friendly  intercourse 
with  the  natives. 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF    BRAZIL  175 

On  his  return  Vespucius  carried  a  cargo  of  brazil- 
wood. This  was  a  well-known  dye  wood  three  centuries 
before  the  time  of  Columbus,  and  was  one  of  the  most 
valuable  articles  brought  from  India  by  the  traders  of 
southern  Europe.  When  this  same  dyewood  was  found 
abundant  in  these  tropical  forests,  the  name  of  Brazil 
soon  became  fastened  upon  the  country. 

In  June,  1503,  Vespucius  sailed  again  from  Lisbon 
with  six  ships.  The  object  of  this  voyage  was  to  dis- 
cover a  certain  island  called  Melcha,  which  was  sup- 
posed to  lie  west  of  Galicut,  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
to  be  as  famous  a  mart  in  the  commerce  of  the  Indian 
world  as  Cadiz  was  in  Europe.  They  reached  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands,  and  then,  contrary  to  the  judgment  of 
Vespucius  and  of  all  the  fleet,  the  commander  persisted 
in  standing  for  the  African  coast.  The  commander's 
ship  was  lost,  and  Vespucius,  with  one  vessel  only, 
reached  the  coast  of  the  new  world,  finding  a  port 
which  is  thought  to  have  been  Bahia.  Here  "they 
waited  about  two  months  in  the  vain  expectation  of 
being  joined  by  the  rest  of  the  squadron.  Having  lost 
all  hope  of  this,  they  coasted  on  for  260  leagues  to  the 
southward,  and  there  took  port  again  in  18°  S.  35°  W. 
of  the  meridian  of  Lisbon.  Here  they  remained  five 
months,  upon  good  terms  with  the  natives,  with  whom 
some  of  the  party  penetrated  forty  leagues  into  the 
interior;  and  here  they  erected  a  fort,  in  which  they 
left  twenty-four  men  who  had  been  saved  from  the  com- 
mander's ship.  They  gave  them  twelve  guns,  besides 
other  arms,  and  provisions  for  six  months ;  then  loaded 
with  brazil-wood,  sailed  homeward,  and  returned  in 
safety." 


176 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


THE    EMPEROR'S    PALACE   AT    PETROFCLIS. 

The  first  permanent  settlements  on  this  coast  were 
made  by  Jews,  exiled  by  the  persecution  of  the  Inqui- 
sition; and  the  government  supplemented  these  by 
sending  out  criminals  of  all  kinds.  But  gradually  the 
importance  of  Brazil  became  recognized,  and  as  after- 
ward happened  in  New  England,  the  nobility  at  home 
asked  to  share  the  land  among  themselves.  The  king 
would  not  countenance  such  a  claim,  but  after  his  death 
in  1521,  his  successor,  John  III.,  extended  to  Brazil 
the  same  system  which  had  been  adopted  in  Madeira 
and  the  Azores.  The  whole  seacoast  of  Brazil  was  par- 
celed out  by  feudal  grants.  It  was  divided  into  cap- 
taincies, each  fifty  leagues  in  length,  with  no  limits 
in  the  interior;  and  with  these  were  given  absolute 
power  over  the  natives,  such  as  at  that  time  was  held 
over  the  serfs  who  tilled  the  soil  in  Europe. 

The  native  Brazilians  were  neither  so  easy  a  conquest 
as  the  Peruvians  nor  so  readily  induced  to  labor,  and 


HISTORICAL    SKETCH    OF   BRAZIL.  177 

the  Portuguese  began  to  bring  negroes  from  the  Guinea 
coast.  The  settlers  of  Brazil  sold  their  possessions 
at  home  and  brought  their  families  with  them  to  the 
new  country.  Thus  they  gradually  formed  the  heart 
of  a  new  nation,  and  were,  properly  speaking,  the  first 
European  colonists  of  South  America.  In  the  Spanish 
colonies  the  chief  Spaniards  always  returned  home  after 
a  certain  tenure  of  their  offices,  and  those  who  remained 
fell  to  the  level  of  the  conquered  natives.  The  Portu- 
guese soon  discovered  that  many  of  the  products  of  the 
East  could  be  raised  in  the  new  land,  and  hence 
Brazil  early  became  an  agricultural  colony,  its  prosper- 
ity being  largely  due  to  the  culture  of  sugar  cane. 

The  Dutch,  made  bold  by  their  great  successes  in  the 
East,  now  sought  to  win  the  trade  of  Brazil  by  force  of 
arms.  Encouraged  by  the  success  of  the  East  India 
Company,  the  merchants  subscribed  funds  for  the  West 
India  Company,  incorporated  in  1621.  Here,  as  in  the 
East,  the  profit  of  the  company  was  the  whole  aim  of 
the  Dutch,  and  the  spirit  in  which  they  executed  their 
design  was  a  main  cause  of  its  failure ;  though  the  prof- 
its of  the  company  rose  at  one  time  to  one  hundred  per 
cent.  The  vision  of  the  speculators  of  Amsterdam 
became  wider,  and  they  resolved  to  become  masters  of 
all  Brazil.  They  dispatched,  in  1637,  Prince  John  Mau- 
rice of  Nassau  to  execute  this  design,  and  in  a  short 
time  he  had  greatly  extended  the  Dutch  possessions. 

The  affairs  of  the  Dutch  were  subject,  however,  not  to 
the  wise  and  learned  men  who  sat  in  the  States-General, 
but  to  the  merchants  who  composed  the  courts  of  the 
company.  They  thought  of  nothing  but  their  divi- 
dends; they  considered  that  Maurice  kept  up  more 


178  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

troops  and  built  more  fortresses  than  were  necessary 
for  a  mercantile  community,  and  that  he  lived  in  too 
princely  a  fashion  for  one  in  their  service.  Perhaps 
they  suspected  him  of  an  intention  of  slipping  into 
that  royal  dignity  which  the  feudal  frame  of  Brazilian 
society  seemed  to  offer  him.  At  any  rate,  in  1643,  they 
forced  him  to  resign. 

A  recent  revolution  had  terminated  the  subjection  of 
Portugal  to  Spain,  and  the  new  king  of  Portugal  con- 
cluded a  truce  for  ten  years  with  Holland.  War  was 
therefore  supposed  to  be  out  of  the  question.  But  the 
recall  of  Maurice  was  the  signal  for  an  independent 
revolt  in  Brazil.  Though  the  mother  countries  were  at 
peace,  war  broke  out  between  the  Dutch  and  the  Portu- 
guese of  Brazil  in  1645.  A  wealthy  merchant  of  Per- 
nambuco  led  a  general  uprising  of  the  Brazilians ;  and 
although  the  Dutch  made  a  stubborn  resistance,  they 
received  no  assistance  from  home,  and  were  driven  from 
one  post  after  another  until,  in  1654,  the  last  of  the 
company's  servants  quitted  Brazil.  The  Dutch  declared 
war  against  Portugal;  but  in  1661  peace  was  made, 
and  the  Dutch  sold  their  claim  for  eight  million  florins, 
keeping  only  the  right  of  trading.  After  the  expulsion 
of  the  Dutch,  however,  the  trade  of  Brazil  came  more 
and  more  into  the  hands  of  the  English. 

While  anarchy  and  ruin  overspread  the  greater  part 
of  the  beautiful  continent  of  South  America,  the  empire 
of  Brazil  won  an  independent  existence  without  blood- 
shed, and  kept  it  with  credit. 

Dom  Pedro,  the  second  son  of  John  VI.  of  Portugal, 
was  born  near  Lisbon,  October  12,  1798.  He  was 
taken  with  the  royal  family  to  Brazil  when  nine  years 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH   OF   BRAZIL  179 

old.  There  he  received  a  somewhat  limited  education, 
and,  in  1818,  was  married  to  the  Archduchess  Leo- 
poldina  of  Austria.  His  father  was  crowned  king  of 
Portugal  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  when  he  returned  to 
Lisbon,  in  1821,  left  Dom  Pedro  as  regent.  The 
prince  was  now  heir  to  the  throne,  owing  to  the  death 
of  his  elder  brother.  At  this  time  the  movement  for 
the  separation  of  Brazil  from  Portugal  assumed  active 
form,  and  the  prince  regent  favored  it  more  or  less 
openly.  His  father  sent  peremptory  orders  for  him  to 
return  to  Portugal,  but  he  refused;  and  in  1822  he 
definitely  declared  for  independence,  and  became  the 
first  emperor  of  Brazil. 

A  modern  historian  has  said,  "Pedro  I.  governed 
Brazil  with  the  same  whip  with  which  he  drove  his 
carriage  horses."  So  harsh  and  tyrannical  did  his  rule 
become,  that  the  people  at  length  arose  in  their  might, 
and,  assembling  in  the  public  square  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
on  April  7,  1831,  forced  him  to  remove  from  his  head 
the  imperial  crown.  His  reign  thus  ended  in  public 
disgrace. 

His  son,  Dom  Pedro  II.,  became  the  second  emperor 
of  Brazil.  As  he  was  a  child  of  six  years  when  his 
father  abdicated  in  his  favor,  Brazil  was  governed  by 
regents  until  1840,  when  his  majority  was  proclaimed 
at  the  request  of  the  parliament.  He  was  crowned 
in  1841,  and  from  the  first  he  proved  himself  an  intel- 
ligent, liberal,  and  humane  ruler. 

During  his  reign  Brazil  made  great  advances  in 
civilization  and  material  prosperity;  he  was  the  hon- 
ored protector  of  science,  art,  and  literature,  for  which 
he  had  marked  tastes;  and  he  was  universally  respected 


180  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

at  home  and  abroad.  On  the  other  hand,  he  some- 
times neglected  important  questions  for  smaller  affairs, 
.and  he  showed,  perhaps,  a  want  of  strength  in  great 
crises.  He  was  strongly  attached  to  constitutional 
forms,  and  governed  entirely  through  his  ministers. 


DOM    PEDRO   II. 


One  of  the  Brazilian  officials  has  said:  "There  are 
three  things  in  the  political  conduct  of  Pedro  II.  which 
are  worthy  of  mention,  — the  liberty  of  the  press,  the 
abolition  of  slavery,  and  the  willingness  with  which 
he  yielded  in  favor  of  the  republic.  His  consent  to 
give  up  the  throne  undoubtedly  saved  the  country  from 
a  civil  war.  Were  the  republic  as  bad  as  its  worst 
enemies  painted  it,  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  any  monarchy 


THE   YOUNGEST    REPUBLIC.  181 

which  could  be  set  up  on  its  ruins.  The  old  order 
of  things  is  now  impossible  in  Brazil." 

When,  on  the  15th  of  November,  1889,  the  telegraph 
announced  to  the  world  that  a  republic  had  been  pro- 
claimed in  Brazil,  "  in  the  empire  of  good  old  Dom 
Pedro,"  many  persons  were  greatly  astonished.  There 
was  a  vague  knowledge,  it  is  true,  that  the  first  emperor 
of  Brazil  had  been  compelled  to  abdicate  by  a  forcible 
expression  of  the  popular  will ;  but  the  ideas  generally 
entertained  of  Pedro  II.,  based  on  his  really  high  moral 
qualities,  had  surrounded  his  name  and  his  country  with 
a  halo  so  brilliant  that  the  world  in  general  regarded 
the  monarchical  government  of  Brazil  as  a  success. 

A  statesman,  enthusiastic  over  the  new  order  of 
affairs,  says:  "Republicanism  in  Brazil  has  its  heroes 
and  its  martyrs  worthy  of  historic  mention  when  the 
annals  shall  be  written  of  that  nation  to  which  was 
apportioned  a  territory  as  vast  as  that  of  the  great 
North  American  Union ;  and  which,  in  the  next  cen- 
tury, is  destined  to  play  in  South  America  the  same 
part  as  that  which  in  this  portion  of  the  continent  has 
been  taken  by  the  United  States." 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

THE   YOUNGEST   REPUBLIC. 

BRAZIL  has  an  area  a  little  larger  than  that  of  the 
United  States.  It  measures  2600  miles  from  its  north- 
ern to  its  southern  extremity,  and  its  greatest  breadth  is 


182  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

about  2700  miles.  Even  at  the  present  time  the  north- 
ern and  part  of  the  western  boundary  is  uncertain.  In 
this  one  republic  is  comprised  about  two-fifths  of  the 
area  and  of  the  population  of  South  America.  It  has 
nearly  as  much  coast  line  as  the  United  States,  and  its 
inland  boundaries  touch  every  state  on  the  continent 
except  Chile. 

The  population  of  this  vast  country  has  been  esti- 
mated to  be  about  20,000,000.  Of  these  one-third  are 
classed  as  whites,  one-third  a  general  mixture  of  vari- 
ous races,  with  about  1,000,000  negroes  and  as  many 
Indians,  of  whom  one-half  are  uncivilized.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  population  is  in  the  southern  part,  the 
great  Amazon  valley  being  very  thinly  settled  and  only 
partly  explored.  The  five  largest  cities  in  the  order  of 
their  size  are  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo,  Pernambuco, 
Bahia,  and  Para. 

Brazil  may  be  divided  into  three  main  divisions: 
first,  the  Brazilian  plateau,  which  includes  the  coast 
and  central  mountains ;  second,  the  great  depression  of 
the  Amazon  and  the  Paraguay ;  and  third,  the  strip  of 
land  to  the  north  of  the  Amazon,  forming  part  of  the 
Guiana  plateau. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  country  of  Brazil  has  a  delight- 
ful climate.  It  is  true  that  many  people  living  in  the 
wild  valleys  of  the  great  rivers  that  annually  overflow 
suffer  much  from  intermittent  fever,  but  this  is  because 
they  are  poorly  housed  and  fed.  Along  the  northern 
coast  the  heat  is  severe  and  the  climate  unhealthful. 

Mrs.  Agassiz,  writing  at  Para,  has  said:  "We  are 
very  agreeably  surprised  in  the  climate  here.  I  had 
expected,  from  the  moment  of  our  arrival  in  the  region 


THE   YOUNGEST    REPUBLIC. 


183 


of  the  Amazon,  to  be  gasping  in  a  fierce,  un intermit- 
ting, intolerable  heat.  On  the  contrary,  the  mornings 
are  fresh,  a  walk  or  ride  between  six  and  eight  o'clock 
is  always  delightful,  and  though,  during  the  middle  of 
the  day,  the  heat  is  certainly  very  great,  it  cools  off 
again  toward  four  o'clock.  The  evenings  are  delightful, 
and  the  nights 
always  comfort- 
able. Even  in 
the  hottest  part 
of  the  day  the 
heat  is  not  dead ; 
there  is  always  a 
breeze  stirring." 
"It  is  difficult 
to  write  of  Brazil 
without  the  ap- 
pearance of  exag- 
geration," says 
J.  C.  Redman. 
"Its  surface  is  so 
wide,  its  rivers  so 
large,  its  forests 
so  vast,  its  flora 
so  varied  and 

grand,  its  fauna  so  strange,  that  he  who  writes  of  that 
country  must  speak  of  great  and  wonderful  things. 
Nature  is  there  so  superlative  in  its  manifestations, 
so  grandiose  in  its  creations,  as  to  exclude  the  common- 
place. A  great  part  of  the  land  is  just  as  it  has  been 
evolved  by  the  forces  of  nature,  by  the  all-creative  sun. 
Some  of  its  tribes  are  in  almost  the  same  condition  as 


TREE   FERNS. 


184  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

when  they  excited  the  wonder  and  fear  of  the  first 
discoverers.  Even  cannibalism  is  said  still  to  prevail 
among  certain  tribes.  For  the  greater  part  of  the 
country's  vast  extent  the  white  man  has  only  fringed 
the  aboriginal  expanse  of  forest  and  plain  with  a  nar- 
row border  of  civilization,  or  sprinkled  it  with  military 
and  trading  posts,  long  journeys  apart. 

"Vegetation,  in  the  northern  portion,  stimulated  by 
tropical  heat  and  moisture,  resists  the  encroachments 
of  the  settler.  Every  foot  he  gains  is  disputed ;  every 
incK  he  abandons  is  at  once  recovered  by  nature.  The 
garden  neglected  for  a  season  becomes  a  jungle.  The 
giant  ferns  and  canes  stand  in  serried  ranks  to  resist 
the  advance  of  cultivation.  The  gigantic  trees  dull 
the  woodman's  ax  with  their  ironlike  fibers,  and  refuse 
to  fall  before  his  wearied  arm,  upheld  by  the  clinging 
vines  that  bind  them  to  their  forest  kindred.  Fevers 
hide  in  the  forests  and  lurk  along  the  streams.  The 
tiger  [jaguar]  kills  the  settler's  cattle  and  carries  away 
his  sheep.  Nature  exerts  all  her  powers  to  preserve  her 
riches  from  the  hand  of  man;  and  the  battle  is  fierce, 
the  struggle  long,  and  the  conquest  incomplete." 

Throughout  all  the  vast  region  of  mountain  and  plain 
lie  undiscovered  mineral  treasures  to  feed  the  future 
manufactures  of  the  nation.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
mention  the  gold  and  diamond  deposits,  as  upon  them, 
however  abundant,  no  national  wealth  can  be  built; 
but  it  may  be  worth  while  to  speak  briefly  of  the  coal, 
iron,  and  other  mineral  resources  of  the  country. 

The  deposits  of  coal,  though  widely  scattered,  have 
not  yet  been  found  in  quantities  to  compare  with  those 
of  iron;  and,  unfortunately,  they  are  not  near  to  the 


THE   YOUNGEST   REPUBLIC.  185 

latter.  Antimony  and  bismuth  are  found  in  scattered 
localities,  marbles  of  great  beauty  and  hardness  exist 
in  various  districts,  and  a  mine  of  the  pure  white  marble 
of  Carrara  has  just  been  discovered  at  Cruz  Alta  in  the 
state  of  Rio  Grande.  Asbestos  and  various  ochers  have 
been  discovered  in  Minas  and  Santa  Catarina;  and  per- 
haps the  finest  specimens  of  quartz  in  the  world,  for  the 
manufacture  of  lenses,  are  found  in  the  state  of  Minas. 
Agates  abound  in  Rio  Grande  do  Sul;  topazes  and 
amethysts  are  found  in  Minas.  In  the  same  state  exist 
important  deposits  of  saltpeter  and  graphite,  the  latter 
containing  eighty-three  per  cent  of  pure  carbon. 

Several  railways  run  out  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the 
longest  and  probably  the  most  important  being  the 
Central  Railway,  formerly  known  as  the  Dom  Pedro. 
The  first  section  of  this  line  was  opened  in  1857.  It 
was  started  by  a  private  company,  with  a  government 
guarantee  of  seven  per  cent  interest;  but  the  capital  of 
the  company  was  speedily  absorbed,  owing  to  the  enor- 
mous extent  of  the  outlay  beyond  the  estimates.  In 
1865  the  government  bought  out  the  stockholders,  and 
since  then  the  railway  has  been  run  as  a  government 
road,  like  many  of  the  railways  on  the  continent  of 
Europe. 

Some  railroads  in  Brazil  pay  large  dividends,  but 
others  are  unprofitable  and  would  be  given  up  alto- 
gether but  for  the  aid  received  from  the  government. 
Freight  and  passenger  rates  are  very  high,  as  the  lim- 
ited amount  of  business  makes  it  impossible  to  fix  low 
rates.  The  passenger  fares  are  from  four  to  five  cents 
a  mile,  first  class,  and  about  half  as  much  for  second 
class.  Every  pound  of  baggage  beyond  that  carried  in 


186 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


the  traveler's  hand  is  charged  extra;  and  the  transpor- 
tation of  a  fair-sized  trunk  costs  as  much  as  a  passen- 
ger's ticket,  as  is  also  the  case  in  some  parts  of  Europe. 


THE   COFFEE   TREE. 


These  railroads  lead  to  some  of  the  largest  coffee 
plantations  in  the  world.  The  great  coffee  region  is 
along  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Parnahiba,  in  the  state  of 


THE  YOUNGEST   REPUBLIC.  187 

Sao  Paulo.  The  coffee  tree  is  not  a  native  of  South 
America.  Its  original  home  is  supposed  to  have  been 
in  Ahyssinia;  from  there  it  was  taken  to  Arabia  about 
the  fifteenth  century,  and  then  to  the  island  of  Mocha, 
in  the  East  Indies.  Coffee  from  that  part  of  the  world 
early  attained  a  celebrity  which  it  has  never  lost.  The 
honor  of  planting  the  first  coffee  tree  in  Brazil  belongs 
to  a  Franciscan  friar,  who,  in  1754,  placed  one  in  the 
garden  of  the  San  Antonio  Convent  at  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
The  first  cargo  to  the  United  States  was  exported  in 
1809. 

The  coffee  seed  is  planted  in  a  nursery,  and  seedlings 
are  transplanted  to  the  field  when  they  are  about  a  foot 
high.  They  must  be  kept  free  from  weeds  and  have  a 
good  deal  of  water ;  a  coffee  plantation  without  irriga- 
tion facilities  is  worthless.  After  the  bushes  are  fully 
grown,  they  do  not  require  much  care  or  expense. 

The  cacao  tree  grows  and  produces  abundantly,  not 
only  in  the  Amazon  basin,  but  also  on  the  Atlantic 
slope.  It  grows  for  the  most  part  in  a  wild  state,  but 
recent  attempts  to  cultivate  it  on  a  large  scale  have 
been  followed  with  excellent  results. 

The  vanilla  plant  grows  throughout  the  tropical 
part  of  Brazil.  It  belongs  to  the  orchid  family  and 
is  not  only  very  valuable,  but  very  beautiful.  The 
pods  are  from  six  to  twelve  inches  in  length,  and  con- 
tain many  minute  black  seeds  which  have  a  pleasant 
odor.  From  them  are  produced  other  useful  substances 
besides  the  flavoring  extract  in  common  use. 

The  region  where  sugar  can  be  profitably  cultivated 
is  much  larger,  for  the  cane  will  grow  vigorously  and 
produce  profitably  in  any  part  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 


188  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

It  is  no  exaggeration  to  assert  that  Brazil  could  cheaply 
sweeten  the  markets  of  the  world  if  all  other  sources  of 
supply  were  cut  off.  Had  the  reciprocity  treaty  with 
Spain  failed,  the  production  of  Brazilian  sugar  would 
have  been  greatly  stimulated  under  the  advantages 
secured  by  the  reciprocity  agreement  with  this  country. 

Cotton  also  produces  well  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  Brazil ;  and  in  consequence  of  the  erection  of  facto- 
ries in  the  central  states,  its  production  and  manu- 
facture have  largely  increased.  The  cloths  made  are 
strong  and  firm,  and  in  Brazil  are  preferred  to  some  of 
British  manufacture. 

The  most  important  of  these  factories  are  located  at 
Petropolis,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
which  is  situated  about  three  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea  level.  It  is  reached  by  a  cog  railroad,  which  makes 
the  necessary  ascent  in  a  distance  of  four  miles ;  and  up 
this  heavy  grade  all  the  raw  material  consumed  by  the 
factories  is  conveyed.  The  advantages  of  the  location 
lie  chiefly  in  the  supply  of  water  power  and  the  beauti- 
ful climate. 

The  woods  of  Brazil  are  not  the  least  important 
among  its  varied  resources.  On  the  Amazon  and  its 
tributaries,  and  in  other  sections  of  the  country,  are 
dense  forests  of  hard  and  soft  woods,  adapted  to  orna- 
mental and  practical  use  in  the  manufacture  of  fur- 
niture, trimmings,  and  other  commodities,  as  well  as  in 
house  and  ship  building.  Brazil-wood,  which  is  the 
principal  dye  wood  exported,  is  put  on  board  ship  at 
Bahia  at  a  cost  of  about  one  cent  a  pound. 

There  are  many  woods  of  great  value,  but  the  most 
wonderful  of  all  is  the  carnahuba,  which  grows  uncul- 


THE  YOUNGEST   REPUBLIC. 


189 


A   CART   ON   A   SUGAR  PLANTATION. 


tivated  in  several  of  the  states.  From  a  single  carna- 
huba  tree  an  enormous  quantity  of  clear  lumber  is  said 
to  be  obtained.  The  descriptions  given  of  it  seem  in- 
credible. Take  the  following  as  an  example :  — 

"Perhaps  in  no  other  region  is  a  tree  to  be  found 
that  can  be  employed  for  such  varied  and  useful  pur- 
poses. It  resists  intense  and  protracted  drought,  and 
is  always  green  and  vigorous.  Its  roots  produce  the 
same  medicinal  effects  as  sarsaparilla.  Its  stem  affords 
strong,  light  fibers,  which  acquire  a  beautiful  luster, 
and  serve  also  for  joists,  rafters,  and  other  building 
materials,  as  well  as  for  stakes  for  fences.  From  parts 
of  the  tree  wine  and  vinegar  are  made.  It  yields 
also  a  saccharine  substance,  as  well  as  a  starch  resem- 
bling sago.  In  periods  of  famine,  caused  by  protracted 
droughts,  the  nutritious  substances  obtained  from  it 
are  of  immense  benefit  to  the  poorer  classes.  Its  fruit 


190  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

is  used  for  feeding  cattle.  The  pulp  has  an  agreeable 
taste ;  and  the  nut,  which  is  oleaginous  and  emulsive, 
is  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

"Of  the  wood  of  the  stem,  musical  instruments, 
water-tubes,  and  pumps  are  made.  The  pith  is  an 
excellent  substitute  for  cork.  From  the  stem  a  white 
liquid,  similar  to  the  milk  of  the  cocoanut,  and  a  flour 
resembling  maizena,  may  be  extracted.  Of  the  straw, 
hats,  baskets,  brooms,  and  mats  are  made.  A  consider- 
able quantity  of  this  straw  is  shipped  to  Europe,  and  a 
part  of  it  returns  to  Brazil  manufactured  into  hats. 
The  straw  is  also  used  for  thatching  houses.  Moreover, 
salt  is  extracted  from  it,  and  likewise  an  alkali  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  common  soap.  But  from  an  indus- 
trial and  commercial  point  of  view,  the  most  valuable 
product  of  the  carnahuba  tree  is  the  wax  obtained  from 
its  leaves.  From  this  wax  candles  are  made,  which  are 
extensively  used  in  the  northern  Brazilian  states." 

The  Brazilian  people  are  intelligent,  progressive,  and 
enthusiastic  in  the  reception  of  new  ideas.  They  are 
exceedingly  fond  of  the  imaginative  in  literature,  of 
poetry  and  the  drama,  and  of  music  and  painting. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

SOME   BRAZILIAN   CITIES. 

BRAZIL  is  so  vast  a  country  that  it  is  impossible  in  a 
book  like  this  to  do  full  justice  to  its  cities  and  city 
life,  although  these  form  important  themes  for  study. 


SOME    BRAZILIAN   CITIES. 


191 


The  most  we  can  do  is  to  select  a  few  of  the  principal 
places,  and  use  these  as  illustrations  of  the  larger  whole. 
It  is  natural,  perhaps,  that  we  turn  first  of  all  to 
the  capital,  the  beautiful  and  far-famed  city  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  Its  principal  interest  lies  in  its  wonderful 
bay  and  harbor,  said  to  be  the  largest  and  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  world.  The  bay  was,  at  the  first,  mistaken 
for  the  mouth  of  a  giant  river,  and  from  this  blunder  the 


A   SQUARE    IN    RIO    DE   JANEIRO. 


city  received  its  inappropriate  name.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  Rio  de  Janeiro  or  Buenos  Aires,  in  Argentina, 
has  the  larger  population,  as  the  statistics  furnished 
by  different  authorities  vary  widely;  but  the  population 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro  may  safely  be  set  down  at  not  less 
than  seven  hundred  thousand. 

The  city  itself  is  not  specially  attractive,  its  chief 
beauties  lying  in  its  suburbs,  which  are  nestled  amid 
the  richly  wooded  hills  by  which  it  is  surrounded. 


192  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Here  are  hundreds  of  beautiful  residences  in  almost 
every  style  of  architecture,  many  of  them  being  luxu- 
riously furnished. 

The  city  proper  occupies  the  flat  lands  spreading  out 
directly  from  the  bay.  The  older  streets  are  narrow 
and  crooked,  and  have  but  few  buildings  of  sufficient 
importance  to  attract  attention ;  but  the  newer  streets, 
lying  farther  back  from  the  sea,  are  wider  and  better 
kept,  and  have  many  substantial  houses  and  places  of 
business.  The  principal  business  street,  the  Rua  da 
Ouvidor,  is  lined  with  retail  stores,  cafes,  and  restau- 
rants. It  is  a  favorite  promenade,  and  during  the  early 
evenings  no  carriages  are  allowed  upon  it. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  has  several  public  parks,  and  the 
Botanical  Gardens  are  especially  worthy  of  mention. 
Most  of  the  trees  and  plants  of  the  continent  of  South 
America,  and  rare  exotics  from  all  parts  of  the  globe, 
are  cultivated  in  these  gardens.  Cinnamon  and  clove 
trees  may  be  found  in  close  relation  to  a  collection  of 
tea  plants  from  China  and  Japan ;  the  breadfruit  tree 
grows  side  by  side  with  cacao  and  camphor  trees ;  while 
not  far  off  are  maples  and  pines,  that  seem  like  old 
friends  to  the  visitor  from  New  England.  Many  trees 
from  tropical  Asia  have  found  a  home  in  Brazil  through 
the  instrumentality  of  the  Botanical  Gardens,  where 
their  fitness  for  the  climate  of  South  America  was  first 
ascertained. 

Near  these  gardens  stands  the  Candelaria,  said  to  be 
one  of  the  handsomest  churches  in  South  America. 
There  are  seven  or  eight  hospitals  in  the  city,  and  the 
one  known  as  the  Misericordia  is  a  particularly  large 
and  richly  endowed  institution. 


194  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Shipbuilding  is  extensively  carried  on,  and  many 
other  lines  of  business  flourish  on  the  margin  of  the 
bay.  Several  forts  loom  up  in  silent  strength  as  points 
of  attraction;  but  they  are  not  equipped  with  ordnance 
sufficiently  modern  to  count  for  much  in  the  warfare  of 
to-day. 

Rio  is  the  great  coffee  emporium  of  the  world, 
and  from  this  one  fact  alone  is  sure  to  maintain  its 
hold  upon  the  world's  attention.  Its  exports  equal 
those  of  all  other  Brazilian  ports  combined,  and  it  is 
in  daily  touch  with  ships  from  every  quarter  of  the 
globe. 

Bahia  takes  its  name,  which  means  bay,  from  All 
Saints  Bay  on  which  it  stands.  It  ranks  next  to  Rio 
de  Janeiro  both  in  importance  and  in  population.  It 
is  situated  about  740  miles  north  of  Rio,  and  has  a 
charming  location  and  attractive  surroundings.  It  is 
a  terraced  city,  the  upper  part  being  several  hundred 
feet  higher  than  the  lower,  and  it  presents  a  fine 
appearance  as  approached  from  the  sea. 

The  elevated  portions  of  the  town  are  most  thickly 
populated;  and  here  are  located  the  public  buildings, 
including  the  cathedral,  the  governor's  palace,  an 
immense  theater,  the  mint,  and  several  churches  and 
convents.  A  public  library,  founded  in  1811,  is  much 
prized  and  generally  used;  and  the  literary  standing  of 
the  people  is  excellent. 

The  principal  interest  of  Bahia  centers  in  its  port, 
which  is  able  to  receive  the  largest  steamers,  and  is  a 
scene  of  great  maritime  activity.  It  is  defended  by 
several  forts,  and  possesses  one  of  the  best  lighthouses 
on  the  coast.  Sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  rum,  cotton,  dye- 


SOME   BRAZILIAN   CITIES. 


195 


woods,  hides,  horns,  and  tallow  are  piled  on  the  docks 
and  in  the  warehouses  in  large  quantities,  and  are 
shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  commerce, 
however,  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  Englishmen. 

Bahia  was  founded  in  1549,  and  was  the  capital  of 
the  country  until  1763.  With  a  population  of  over 
200,000  and  an 
annual  growth  of 
nearly  6000,  it  forms 
the  commercial  cen- 
ter of  that  portion  of 
Brazil  in  which  it 
is  located,  arid  can- 
not fail  to  increase 
in  importance  and 
in  wealth.  In  1814 
diamonds  were 
found  in  the  moun- 
tains near  by,  and 
the  city  became,  for 
a  while,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  dia- 
mond trade.  But 
although  they  have 
yielded  some  of  the 
finest  single  speci- 
mens known,  the 
mines  are  not  worked 
now  to  any  consider- 
able extent,  being 

greatly  overshadowed  by  the  superior  output  of  the 
mines  in  Southern  Brazil  and  in  South  Africa. 


RIPE    BANANAS." 


196  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

With  the  exception  of  Para,  which  will  be  noticed  in 
the  chapter  on  the  Amazon  valley,  the  next  city  in  the 
order  of  importance  is  Pernambuco.  One  of  its  pecul- 
iarities is  that  it  really  consists  of  three  cities  in  one, 
namely,  Recife,  Santo  Antonio,  and  Boa  Vista.  Two 
of  these  are  on  islands,  and  one  is  on  the  mainland ; 
but  they  are  connected  by  bridges,  and  all  parts  are  easy 
of  access,  as  the  land  is  extremely  flat. 

Pernambuco  has  a  population  of  more  than  150,000, 
and  is  full  of  business  activity.  If  its  harbor  were 
only  capable  of  admitting  larger  vessels,  its  business 
would  quickly  increase.  It  occupies  the  same  position 
in  regard  to  the  sugar  trade  of  Brazil  that  Rio  does  to 
its  coffee  trade.  As  it  is  connected  by  several  railways 
with  large  sections  of  the  interior,  and  is  nearer  to 
Europe  than  any  other  Brazilian  port,  its  future  pros- 
perity may  safely  be  predicted. 

Parahiba,  a  few  miles  north  of  Pernambuco,  holds 
the  distinction  of  being  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in 
Brazil,  having  been  founded  in  1579.  The  College  of 
the  Jesuits  and  the  ancient  cathedral  are  among  the 
most  striking  features  of  the  city,  but  the  government 
buildings  are  so  unpretentious  as  to  be  scarcely  worthy 
of  mention.  The  shallowness  of  its  harbor  interferes 
seriously  with  its  business,  and  as  a  result  of  this,  it  is 
rapidly  being  superseded  by  the  thriving  little  town  of 
Cabedello,  which  lies  nearer  to  the  mouth  of  the  Para- 
hiba River  and  can  accommodate  vessels  of  a  much 
larger  draught. 

Farther  north  along  the  coast  is  Aracate,  a  town  of 
over  6000  people,  important  as  a  commercial  center. 
It  has  three  churches  and  several  schools,  but  they  are 


SOME    BRAZILIAN    CITIES.  197 

small  and  devoid  of  architectural  adornment.  Hides 
and  cotton  are  largely  exported;  but  a  dangerous  bar  at 
the  entrance  to  the  harbor  forms  a  serious  menace  to  the 
future  trade  of  the  place. 

Of  the  coast  towns  south  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  few  are 
of  importance.  We  notice  first  Parati,  a  port  from 
which  many  of  the  dyewoods  of  Brazil  are  shipped; 
but  it  has  no  special  points  of  interest  and  no  other 
important  business. 

Paranagua  is  a  seaport  town  still  lower  down  the 
coast,  which  derives  its  principal  importance  from  the 
fact  that  it  forms  the  eastern  terminus  of  a  railway 
which  crosses  the  mountains  of  Curitiba.  This  road 
opens  up  a  large  section  of  the  country  in  which  yerba- 
mate  is  gathered,  and  this  product  forms  the  principal 
article  of  export.  The  harbor  here  is  excellent,  and  the 
climate  is  cool  and  health}'.  The  town  has  a  few  good 
buildings,  but  the  streets  are  poor  and  badly  lighted. 
The  general  impression  is  not  attractive,  and  there  is 
not  the  business  activity  one  might  expect  to  find. 

Porto  Alegre,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul,  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  river  Guahiba. 
It  is  flat  and  low,  but  is  one  of  the  cleanest,  prettiest, 
and  most  thrifty  cities  of  the  region,  and  is  considered 
one  of  the  most  healthful  of  South  American  ports.  It 
has  a  population  of  100,000,  largely  composed  of  for- 
eigners, and  it  forms  the  port  of  entry  for  several 
German  and  Italian  colonies  lying  farther  up  the  river. 
Much  of  the  trade  of  the  city  is  in  the  hands  of  German 
merchants.  It  exports  large  quantities  of  agricultural 
produce  from  the  colonies  of  foreigners,  and  forms  a 
trading  center  for  the  surrounding  towns  and  villages. 


198 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


Steamers  load  directly  at  its  wharves.  It  is  growing 
rapidly  in  wealth  and  population,  and  promises  to  de- 
velop into  a  place  of  great  importance. 

Rio   Grande  do  Sul  is  built  on  the  broad  channel 
through  which  the  Lagoa  dos  Patos  discharges  into  the 

Atlantic.  A  railway 
connects  it  with  a 
large  interior  region. 
It  is  surrounded  by 
swamps  and  marshes 
on  the  landward  side, 
and  toward  the  sea  by 
shifting  banks  of 
sand,  which  some- 
times block  the  en- 
trance to  the  harbor 
and  make  dredging  a 
constant  necessity. 

Mr.  I.  N.  Ford, 
in  his  "Tropical 
America, "  says  : 
"Each  coast  town 
has  its  characteristic 
colors  and  its  own 
costumes  for  the 

READY  FOR  CHURCH.  s  warming  black  popu- 

lation.     From  the 

equator  to  the  tropic  there  is  a  process  of  evolution 
in  dress.  At  Para  and  Maranhao  the  negro  children 
are  stark  naked.  At  Pernambuco  and  Bahia  they 
wear  calico  dresses.  At  Para  the  men  begin  with  a 
pair  of  trunks,  without  hat,  shoes,  shirt,  or  coat;  at 


SOME   BRAZILIAN   CITIES.  199 

Maranhao  they  have  a  loose-fitting  shirt  flapping  over 
the  trousers;  at  Pernambuco  a  ragged  coat  is  slipped 
over  the  shirt,  and  a  torn  straw  hat  covers  the  head; 
and  at  Bahia  shoes  and  stockings  nearly  complete  the 
costume  of  a  negro  laborer. 

"  The  costumes  of  the  women  are  developed  in  the 
same  progressive  way.  In  the  beginning  there  is  a 
chemise,  or  what  the  ancients  would  have  called  a  long 
tunic,  with  head  and  feet  bare.  Farther  down  the  coast 
a  calico  skirt  and  waist  is  thrown  over  the  chemise,  and 
shoes  are  worn.  At  Bahia  a  light  wrap  is  carelessly 
worn  over  calico  suits  of  the  gayest  colors  and  patterns, 
and  there  is  a  lavish  display  of  cheap  bracelets,  brass 
earrings,  and  amulets.  These  are  the  costumes  of  the 
lowest  classes  of  blacks.  With  education  and  social 
equality  the  dress  of  the  negroes  and  mulattoes  changes 
until  it  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  that  of  the 
Portuguese." 

A  few  inland  towns  and  cities,  such  as  Cuyaba,  and 
Matto  Grosso,  still  farther  to  the  westward,  with  Ouro 
Prato,  Cayenne,  and  a  few  places  farther  north,  have 
come  into  notice  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century. 
But  in  point  of  fact,  outside  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Sao 
Paulo,  Bahia,  Pernambuco,  and  the  cities  of  the  Ama- 
zon valley,  there  are  few  places  of  striking  interest  in 
Brazil. 


200  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

THE    AMAZON  VALLEY. 

No  other  country  in  the  world  possesses  a  river  sys- 
tem approaching  in  extent  and  importance  that  which 
is  formed  by  the  Amazon  and  its  affluents;  for  the 
Amazon  and  its  branches  furnish  a  total  length  of 
about  8000  miles  fit  for  steam  navigation.  The  Ama- 
zon itself  is  2335  miles  long  in  Brazil  alone,  and  as  it 
also  penetrates  1210  miles  into  Peru,  its  total  length  is 
3545  miles.  It  is  a  river  in  comparison  with  which 
the  Mississippi  and  the  Nile  appear  small. 

It  drains  the  greater  part  of  the  northern  and  interior 
tropical  region,  receiving  the  waters  of  the  highlands 
that  separate  Brazil  from  Guiana  and  Venezuela  on  the 
north,  and  of  the  immense  interior  plateau  that  reaches 
from  Bolivia  to  the  Brazilian  Pyrenees.  It  furnishes 
a  great  highway  for  commerce.  Besides  the  national 
product,  india-rubber,  the  products  of  neighboring 
republics  are  carried  on  its  surface,  in  transit  to  the 
United  States  and  Europe. 

The  principal  mouth  of  the  Amazon  is  not  now  used 
by  vessels  ascending  the  river.  It  is  dangerous  to  navi- 
gate, because  the  banks  are  constantly  changing;  so  for 
years  past  the  way  of  approach  has  been  from  Para, 
through  the  estuary  of  that  name.  All  vessels  of  any 
size  bound  up  the  Amazon  touch  at  Para  to  obtain  the 
pilots  who  are  rendered  necessary  by  the  defective  charts 
and  frequent  changes  in  the  channel.  For  the  run  of 
about  900  miles  from  Para  to  Manaos,  two  pilots  are 


THE   AMAZON    VALLEY.  201 

necessary  if  the  vessel  is  to  run  day  and  night,  which 
is  the  general  rule  of  steamer  lines. 

Para  is  the  commercial  center  for  the  trade  of  the 
Amazon  valley.     It  is  situated  at  the  edge  of  a  swamp, 


A   STREET    IN    PARA 


whose  luxuriant  vegetation  is  constantly  encroaching 
on  its  outskirts.  The  city  is  situated  about  seventy- 
five  miles  from  the  open  sea,  and  is  reached  through 
the  Para  River,  which  is  so  wide  that  both  banks  are 
not  visible  at  the  same  time.  It  has  regular  communi- 
cation with  Europe  and  America  by  several  lines  of 


202  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS 

steamers,  and  is  rapidly  becoming  an  important  sea- 
port. It  is  nearer  to  Europe  and  North  America  than 
is  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  therefore  possesses  great  com- 
mercial advantages. 

The  average  temperature  of  Para  is  about  80°  F. , 
with  very  little  variation.  Five  days  out  of  six  there 
is  an  afternoon  shower,  and  as  the  air  is  laden  with 
moisture  taken  up  from  the  sea,  the  streets  are  never 
dry  and  dusty. 

The  wealthy  and  the  commercial  classes  of  Para 
include  Portuguese  and  native  Brazilians,  together 
with  English,  German,  French,  Italians,  and  a  few 
Americans.  But  the  great  mass  of  the  inhabitants 
are  Indians,  negroes,  and  a  general  mixture  of  vari- 
ous races. 

No  one  visits  the  city  of  Para  without  viewing  its 
magnificent  theater,  which  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  fin- 
est theaters  on  the  American  continent.  The  building 
was  erected  just  after  the  close  of  the  war  with  Para- 
guay, and,  to  commemorate  that  event,  it  was  named  the 
"Theater  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Peace." 

"The  best  place  to  study  the  lower  classes,"  says  a 
traveler,  "  is  at  the  market,  which  is  an  active  place  in 
the  early  hours  of  the  day.  We  went  there  on  our 
second  morning,  and  our  attention  was  at  once  drawn 
to  the  piles  of  bananas,  pineapples,  oranges,  lemons, 
and  all  other  tropical  fruits  you  could  think  of,  besides 
a  great  number  you  could  not  possibly  name.  Then 
there  were  garden  vegetables  and  tobacco,  baskets  of 
flowers,  heaps  of  fish,  cages  of  chickens  and  other  fowls, 
and  a  lot  of  monkeys  and  parrots  that  made  noise  enough 
for  a  menagerie." 


THE   AMAZON   VALLEY.  203 

No  account  of  Para  would  be  complete  without  an 
allusion  to  its  snakes.  In  many  houses  they  have 
snakes  of  the  boa-constrictor  family  to  keep  the  place 
clear  of  rats  and  mice.  They  do  their  work  very  well, 
and  live  on  terms  of  quiet  friendship  with  the  inhab- 
itants. 

The  island  of  Marajo  lies  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
river  directly  opposite  to  Para.  It  is  about  150  miles 
long  and  nearly  100  miles  wide.  Half  of  its  surface 
is  covered  with  forest,  and  the  other,  the  northeastern 
half,  is  an  extensive  prairie,  dotted  here  and  there  with 
clumps  of  trees,  among  which  rubber  trees  are  found  in 
abundance.  Para  rubber  is  considered  to  be  the  very 
best  in  the  world. 

"  The  advantages  of  the  island  for  raising  cattle  and 
horses  were  recognized  by  the  early  settlers,  who 
founded  ranches  there,  some  of  them  of  immense 
extent.  At  the  end  of  the  last  century  there  were 
a  million  horses,  and  half  as  many  oxen  and  cows,  on 
the  island;  the  horses  were  wild  and  drove  the  cattle 
to  the  swamps,  where  many  of  them  died.  About  the 
year  1825  the  settlers  complained  so  much  about  the 
ravages  of  the  horses  that  the  government  gave  licenses 
permitting  enterprising  men  to  slaughter  the  animals 
for  their  hides,  and  the  work  of  destruction  went  on 
rapidly.  In  a  few  years  hundreds  of  thousands  of  horses 
had  been  killed  off;  the  bodies  were  left  to  rot  on  the 
ground,  and  bred  a  pestilence  which  destroyed  most 
of  the  remaining  horses  and  cattle.  Horses  are  now 
scarce,  and  a  good  riding  animal  brings  a  high  price." 

A  few  unimportant  villages,  hundreds  of  miles  apart, 
and  a  few  hamlets,  occupied  only  during  the  season  of 


204  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

the  rubber  gathering,  are  the  only  evidences  of  a  doubt- 
ful civilization  that  are  visible  between  the  busy  port 
of  Para,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  Manaos,  900 
miles  above. 

The  city  of  Manaos  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio 
Negro,  and  is  the  seat  of  government  of  the  state  of 
Amazonas.  With  a  population  of  from  thirty  to  forty 
thousand,  it  is  second  in  importance  only  to  Para.  It 
is  the  distributing  point  of  the  business  and  the  people 
along  the  rivers  Madeira,  Purus,  Japura,  Rio  Negro, 
and,  to  some  extent,  the  Javari.  Here  the  rubber  hunt- 
ers transship  their  articles  of  barter  and  necessary  food- 
stuffs. All  articles  of  export  must  be  entered  here  or  at 
the  customhouse  at  Serpa.  The  exports  afford  the 
states  in  Brazil  their  chief  income ;  duties  on  imports 
are  supposed  to  go  to  the  federal  government. 

The  city  of  Manaos  is  lighted  by  electricity,  has  an 
electric  railway  and  waterworks, — all  resulting  from 
American  enterprise,  —  and  possesses  a  good  telephone 
service.  An  American  company  recently  completed  a 
telegraph  line  between  Manaos  and  Para.  The  ciiy 
has  an  ice  plant,  the  streets  are  being  paved  with. 
Hastings  brick,  and  there  are  many  other  signs  of 
progress.  Under  wise  administration  Manaos  seems 
to  have  a  brilliant  future  before  it,  should  present 
trade  conditions  continue  or  improve. 

One  great  advantage  to  the  port  of  Manaos  is  the 
almost  entire  absence  of  current  in  the  Rio  Negro. 
This  permits  the  rapid  handling  of  freight,  coal,  and 
other  articles  of  ocean  commerce  at  the  smallest  cost  of 
both  money  and  time.  The  sea-going  steamers  plying 
here  have  mooring  buoys,  at  which  they  lie  when  in 


THE   AMAZON    VALLEY. 


205 


port.     A  line  of  steamers,  owned  by  the  Booth  Steam- 
ship Company,  runs  from  Manaos  to  New  York. 

"The  Indians  that  dwell  upon  the  banks  of  the 
Amazon  gain  a  large  part  of  their  livelihood  from  the 
river  itself.  One  of 
their  principal  arti- 
cles of  food  is  the 
turtle.  These  are 
often  three  feet  long 
and  broad  in  propor- 
tion. The  eggs  of 
the  turtle  are  used 
for  making  oil  or 
butter,  and  are  found 
in  the  banks  and 
sandbars  along  the 
river.  One  kind  of 
turtle  alone  will  lay 
from  150  to  250  eggs. 
These  eggs  the  turtle 
lays  by  night,  in  a 
hole  in  the  sand 
which  it  digs  with 
its  hind  feet.  It  then  covers  them  with  sand,  and 
leaves  them  to  be  hatched  out  by  the  sun,  or  to  be  taken 
by  the  natives. 

"When  a  turtle  is  caught  on  the  shore,  the  hunters 
turn  him  on  his  back  and  leave  him  there  until  the 
next  day,  when  they  return  and  take  him  away.  In 
this  way  a  band  of  hunters  can  capture  several  turtles 
in  one  night.  ,  It  is  estimated  that  not  fewer  than 
50,000,000  turtles'  eggs  are  taken  every  year  out  of  the 


AN    INDIAN    CHIEF. 


206  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

sandbars  along  the  Amazon.  It  is  a  wonder  that  any 
turtles  remain,  for  they  are  shot  in  the  water  and  caught 
on  the  land;  while  thousands  of  young  turtles  become 
the  food  of  alligators  and  large  fish.  It  is  a  sure  con- 
clusion that  the  turtles  of  the  Amazon  will  soon  follow 
the  fate  of  the  buffalo  on  our  Western  plains." 

Mr.  Franz  Kellar,  in  an  interesting  article  entitled 
"Canoe  and  Camp  Life  on  the  Madeira,"  writes  of 
the  Indians  of  this  region  as  follows:  "Most  of  those 
who  are  not  busy  cooking  spend  their  time  preparing 
new  bast  shirts,  the  material  for  which  is  found  almost 
everywhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  our  halting-places. 
Soon  the  woods  are  alive  with  the  sound  of  hatchets 
and  the  crack  of  falling  trees;  and,  even  before  they 
are  summoned  to  breakfast,  they  return  with  pieces  of 
a  silky  bast  of  about  four  and  a  half  yards  long,  and 
somewhat  less  than  one  and  a  quarter  yards  wide. 

"  Their  implements  for'  shirt-making  are  of  primitive 
simplicity, — a  heavy,  wooden  hammer  with  notches, 
called  a  maceta,  and  a  round  piece  of  wood  to  work 
upon.  Continuously  beaten  with  the  maceta,  the  fibers 
of  the  bast  become  loosened,  until  the  originally  hard 
piece  of  wood  gets  soft  and  flexible  and  about  double 
its  former  breadth.  After  it  has  been  washed,  wrung 
out  to  remove  the  sap,  and  dried  in  the  sun,  it  has  the 
appearance  of  a  coarse,  woolen  stuff  of  a  bright,  whitish 
yellow  or  light  brown,  disclosing  two  main  layers  of 
wavy  fibers  held  together  by  smaller  filaments.  A  more 
easily  prepared  and  better  working  garment  for  a  tropi- 
cal climate  is  hardly  to  be  found  than  this.  Its  cut  is 
as  simple  and  classical  as  its  material.  A  hole  is  cut 
in  the  middle  of  a  piece  about  ten  feet  long,  to  pass  the 


THE   AMAZON   VALLEY.  207 

head  through,  and  the  depending  skirt  is  sewn  together 
on  both  sides,  from  below  up  to  the  height  of  the  gir- 
dle, which  usually  is  a  piece  of  cotton  string,  or  liana. 

"  Bathing  in  the  river  immediately  after  meals  is  a 
luxury  invariably  indulged  in  by  all  the  Indians ;  and 
I  never  noticed  that  it  was  attended  by  any  evil 
consequences  to  them. 

"When  the  last  steak  of  alligator  has  been  con- 
sumed, one  of  them  is  sure  to  ask  leave  to  have  some 
fun,  and  to  provide  at  the  same  time  for  their  next 
dinner.  Of  course  the  permission  is  always  granted, 
as  the  sport  keeps  up  their  spirits  and  spares  our 
provisions. 

"Without  loss  of  time,  one  of  them,  having  carefully 
fastened  a  strong  loop  of  rawhide  at  the  end  of  a  long 
pole,  and  having  dexterously  slipped  off  his  bast  shirt, 
creeps  slowly  though  the  shallow  water,  pole  and  sling 
in  hand,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  alligator,  which  looks 
on  at  these  preparations  with  perfect  apathy,  only  now 
and  then  betraying  a  sign  of  life  by  a  lazy  movement  of 
its  powerful  tail.  But  it  does  not  take  its  eyes  off  the 
Indian  as  he  crawls  nearer  and  nearer.  The  fatal  sling 
is  at  arm's  length  from  its  muzzle,  and  yet  it  does  not 
see  it.  As  if  under  the  influence  of  witchcraft,  it  con- 


-- 


AN    ALLIGATOrl. 


208  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

tinues  to  stare  with  its  large,  protruding  eyes  at  the 
bold  hunter,  who,  in  the  next  moment,  has  thrown  the 
loop  over  its  head  and  suddenly  drawn  it  to  with  a 
strong  pull. 

"  The  other  Indians,  who  have  been  cowering  motion- 
less on  shore,  now  rush  into  the  water  to  the  help  of 
their  companion,  and  four  or  five  of  them  land  the  ugly 
creature,  that  struggles  with  all  its  might  to  get  back 
into  the  water,  lashing  the  sand  with  its  tail  and  show- 
ing its  long  teeth;  but  a  few  vigorous  blows  with  an 
ax  on  the  tail  and  skull  soon  render  it  tame  enough. 
If,  instead  of  dragging  back,  the  alligator  were  only  to 
rush  forward  boldly  to  the  attack  of  the  Indians,  they 
would,  of  a  certainty,  leave  pole  and  sling  and  run  for 
their  lives ;  but  this  bright  idea  never  seems  to  occur  to 
the  uncouth  animal,  and  the  strife  always  ends  with 
its  death." 

Mosquitoes  are  the  worst  pests  of  the  entire  valley. 
They  are  found  wherever  the  rain  falls,  from  the  foot 
of  the  Andes  almost  to  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  middle  Amazon,  in  particular,  is  alive  with  them. 
Here  the  traveler  gets  no  rest,  for  the  several  varieties 
of  mosquitoes  seem  to  take  turns,  some  working  at 
night  and  others  in  the  daytime.  Their  victim  leads 
a  miserable  existence.  The  mosquitoes  greet  one  in 
such  swarms,  that  a  recent  traveler  in  these  parts  said, 
"  The  mosquitoes  fairly  danced  with  joy  at  the  arrival 
of  our  party." 

In  the  great  Amazon  basin,  from  the  mouth  of  the 
river  to  the  confines  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  throughout  the 
forests  that  line  the  banks  and  cover  the  islands,  grows 
the  siphonia  elastica,  from  which  the  greater  part  of  the 


THE   AMAZON    VALLEY. 


209 


india-rubber  of  the  world  is  procured.  The  annual 
production  has  sometimes  reached  a  total  of  more  than 
forty  million 
pounds.  With- 
out cultivation 
the  tree  yields 
its  precious  sap. 
A  simple  incis- 
ion with  the  ax, 
a  clay  cup  fixed 
beneath  it  into 
which  the  milky 
juice  exudes, 
a  few  rough 
utensils  for  the 
gathering  and 
coagulation  of 
the  liquid,  and 
the  collection 
of  the  rough 
product  at  cer- 
tain centers  of 
delivery — these 
constitute  al- 
most the  whole 
means  and  pro- 
cess of  gather- 
ing the  crude 
rubber. 

The  rubber  tree  is  usually  tapped  four  times  during 
the  first  year  of  its  maturity,  and  the  intervals  of  rest 
are  gradually  diminished  until  it  can  be  tapped  monthly. 


TAPPING    A    RUBBER    TREE. 


210  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  tree  requires  the  growth  of  about  twenty-five  years 
before  it  produces  its  full  measure  of  the  milky  sap, 
arid  it  grows  to  the  height  of  from  eighty  to  a  hundred 
feet.  The  slightest  cut  in  the  bark  causes  the  gum  to 
flow.  The  morning  is  the  time  for  tapping  the  trees, 
as  they  cease  to  flow  freely  about  eleven  o'clock.  Most 
of  the  rubber  is  gathered  during  the  dry  season  from 
September  to  April,  and  the  months  from  May  to  Sep- 
tember are  specially  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  rub- 
ber for  the  market. 

The  gathering  of  this  sap,  and  working  it  over  into 
rubber  in  the  form  in  which  it  is  exported,  is  princi- 
pally in  the  hands  of  an  uneducated,  half-civilized 
Indian  population.  Little  has  been  done  to  improve 
the  crude  method  of  the  Indians.  The  following  is  a 
recent  description  of  the  process  of  rubber-making:  — 

"  The  Indian  has  a  small  fire  made  of  palm  nuts,  and 
over  the  fire  is  an  inverted  jar  with  a  hole  in  the 
bottom,  through  which  the  smoke  ascends.  He  dips  a 
paddle  into  the  cream,  and  then  holds  it  over  the  hole 
in  the  jar  until  it  is  dried  by  the  heat,  which  must 
always  be  gentle,  through  fear  of  spoiling  the  rubber. 
When  the  gum  is  hardened,  he  dips  the  paddle  again, 
and  again  dries  it;  he  repeats  the  process  until  the 
desired  thickness  is  secured. 

"  When  the  rubber  is  thick  enough,  it  is  cut  off  and 
is  ready  for  market.  Instead  of  a  paddle,  he  some- 
times uses  a  mold  of  clay.  Formerly  they  made  molds 
resembling  the  human  foot,  and  thus  fashioned  the 
rubber  shoes  that  were  worn  in  America  forty  or  fifty 
years  ago.  Fantastic  figures  were  traced  on  the  shoes 
with  the  end  of  a  hot  wire,  and  the  mold  was  generally 


THE   AMAZON   VALLEY.  211 

soaked  in  water  till  it  fell  to  pieces  and  the  clay  could 
be  washed  out.  The  modern  methods  of  working  rub- 
ber have  driven  these  shoes  from  the  market,  and  very 
few  of  them  are  made  at  present." 

Charles  Goodyear,  of  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  dis- 
covered, in  1843,  the  method  for  vulcanizing  rubber. 
This  process  consists  in  mixing  rubber  with  sulphur 
and  magnesia,  fashioning  the  articles  to  be  made  from 
the  plastic  material,  and  then  heating  it  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  from  265°  to  275°  F.  Combs,  penholders,  jew- 
elry, and  hundreds  of  other  useful  articles  now  in 
common  use  are  made  from  rubber  thus  treated,  and 
new  articles  are  constantly  being  put  on  the  market. 

Early  in  the  year  1899  the  United  States  gunboat 
Wilmington  made  a  voyage  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ama- 
zon to  Iquitos  in  Peru,  for  the  purpose  of  making  maps 
of  the  course  of  the  stream,  photographing  the  main 
points  of  interest,  observing  the  animal  and  bird  life, 
studying  the  native  races,  and  especially  in  order  to 
gather  information  respecting  the  products  of  the  re- 
gion and  new  openings  for  American  commerce. 

From  that  portion  of  the  Report  relating  to  the 
upper  branches  of  the  river  we  take  the  following: 
"There  are  no  towns  of  any  importance  along  the 
whole  stretch  from  Manaos  to  Iquitos,  a  distance  of 
1300  miles.  Those  marked  on  the  map  are  but  villages 
at  the  best,  the  largest  being  Ovilenca,  forty  miles 
below  the  Brazilian  border.  Only  four  navigable  rivers 
empty  into  the  Amazon  between  Manaos  and  Iquitos, 
—  the  Jurua  and  Javari  from  the  south,  the  Japura 
and  Napo  from  the  north,  the  last  just  below  Iquitos. 
There  is  a  vast  number  of  less  important  ones  flowing 


212  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

into  the  main  stream  from  both  north  and  south,  but 
little  is  known  about  them  except  by  the  natives,  who 
paddle  their  canoes  in  every  direction  in  the  hunt  for 
rubber.  All  of  these  smaller  streams  are  sluggish, 
little  or  no  current  existing. 

"  Along  the  river  banks  between  Manaos  and  Taba- 
tinga  are  to  be  found  occasional  patches  of  land  some 
twenty-five  feet  above  high- water  mark,  where  the 
timber  has  been  cleared  away  and  cattle  were  grazing. 
The  character  of  the  cattle  food  could  not  be  ascertained, 
but  appeared  to  be  a  kind  of  grass  growing  in  abun- 
dance. In  other  places,  cattle  were  observed  to  be  wad- 
ing up  to  their  knees  in  water  and  feeding  upon  the 
tender  branches  of  small  growth,  and  the  river  had  yet 
to  rise  some  ten  feet.  A  removal  of  these  cattle  seemed 
imperative,  as  the  highest  visible  ground  did  not  appear 
to  be  over  six  feet  above  the  then  stage  of  the  water. 

"Upon  crossing  the  boundary  between  Brazil  and 
Peru  and  entering  Peruvian  territory,  as  soon  as  day- 
light appeared,  a  marked  change  was  observed  along 
the  banks,  so  far  as  the  people  and  their  habitations 
were  concerned.  Here,  as  if  in  a  moment,  was  met  the 
true  type  of  Peruvian  Indians.  The  houses  were  much 
more  comfortable,  more  substantial  in  build,  and  an 
improved  social  condition  was  everywhere  evident. 
There  were  more  signs  of  thrift,  more  cattle  and  sheep, 
cocoa  plantations  closer  together,  villages  more  fre- 
quent, and  population  greater  than  on  the  river  below ; 
and  this  increased  as  progress  was  made  by  the  Wil- 
mington. 

"  While  no  marked  elevation  occurred  in  the  banks, 
there  appeared  to  be  more  frequent  places  for  groups  of 


HERDSMEN    AND   HUNTERS.  213 

families  to  establish  themselves.  This  improved  state 
of  the  common  people  was  observed  by  all,  and  came  in 
as  a  most  agreeable  surprise.  Nothing  of  incident 
occurred  until  a  stop  was  made  to  procure  fresh  beef 
for  the  crew,  which,  for  a  while,  caused  a  stampede  of 
the  natives  until  reassured  by  the  owner  that  our  errand 
was  only  a  peaceful  one.  Proceeding  thence,  the  Wil- 
mington anchored  off  the  city  of  Iquitos  on  the  13th  of 
April,  eight  days  from  Manaos,  having  steamed  nearly 
2400  miles  up  the  Amazon." 

From  Manaos  to  the  sea  the  most  important  towns 
are  Serpa,  Villa  Bella,  Obidos,  Santarem,  Prainha,  and 
Breves.  The  population  of  these  places  averages  about 
seven  hundred.  With  the  exception  of  Breves,  where 
rubber  constitutes  the  sole  industry,  these  towns  export 
cocoa,  Brazil  nuts,  rubber,  and  cattle.  There  are  also 
several  settlements  of  from  twenty  to  a  hundred  houses, 
and  many  single  huts  at  points  along  the  river;  but 
much  of  this  territory  is  still  silent  and  desolate  in 
the  extreme. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 
HERDSMEN   AND   HUNTERS. 

THERE  is,  in  Brazil,  a  body  of  men  to  whom  special 
attention  must  be  directed,  as  they  form  a  class  by 
themselves,  and  are  so  entirely  unique  in  their  habits 
and  modes  of  life  as  to  have  no  real  parallel  elsewhere, 
although  they  resemble  somewhat  the  llaneros  of  Vene- 
zuela and  the  gauchos  of  Argentine.  These  are  the 
gauchos  or  herdsmen.  Their  occupation  is  the  herding 


214 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


and  raising  of  cattle,  and  their  life  is  spent  entirely  out 
of  doors.  In  general,  they  are  men  of  middle  height, 
thick-set,  broad-chested,  and  muscular;  and  they  pos- 
sess a  physical  strength  and  powers  of  endurance  equal 
to  any  body  of  men  in  the  world. 

The  gaucho  wears  a  jacket  of  coarse  cloth  or  sheep- 
skin, and  pantaloons  of  the  same  stuff,  which  are  open 


GAUCHOS   AND  THEIR    HOME. 


from  the  knee  down.  His  poncho  is  a  square  piece  of 
cloth,  with  an  opening  in  the  middle  for  the  head,  and, 
especially  on  Sundays  and  holidays,  it  is  of  very  gay 
pattern.  The  lower  garment  is  a  curious  combination 
of  bedgown  and  Turkish  trousers.  It  is  bordered  by 
a  fringe,  sometimes  of  lace  from  two  to  six  inches  in 
depth.  His  ornaments  are  spurs  with  silver  rowels,  and 
a  large  knife  with  the  handle  inlaid  with  silver,  which 


HERDSMEN   AND   HUNTERS.  215 

is  carried  in  the  belt.  The  women  are  dressed  almost 
exactly  like  the  men,  except  that  they  have  the  neck 
and  arms  bare. 

The  rancho,  or  hut,  of  the  gaucho  consists  of  a  trellis- 
work  of  brushwood  covered  with  mud.  The  roof  is 
covered  with  straw  or  cowhides,  and  in  place  of  a  door 
is  a  horsehide.  The  food  of  the  gaucho  consists  almost 
entirely  of  meat  and  water. 

Strong,  sturdy,  and  vigorous  from  their  outdoor  life, 
they  are  also  stubborn  and  unyielding  in  disposition, 
and  have,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  been  the  cause 
of  war  and  bloodshed,  ending  in  national  revolution. 
They  mix  but  little  with  their  neighbors.  They  are 
first-rate  people  to  let  alone,  as  they  resent  every  inter- 
ference with  what  they  regard  as  their  rights,  and  do 
not  hesitate  to  defend  these  rights,  even  at  the  cost  of 
human  life. 

They  do  almost  all  their  work  on  horseback,  and 
practically  live  in  the  saddle.  Indeed,  it  has  been 
said  that  the  gaucho's  horse  is  a  part  of  himself;  and 
in  an  important  sense  this  is  really  true. 

The  gauchos  are  not  much  given  to  hunting  the  wild 
animals  of  the  region,  except  in  so  far  as  these  animals 
tamper  with  their  flocks  and  herds.  The  real  huntsmen 
of  Brazil  are  the  Indians,  and  the  vast  forests  furnish 
hunting  grounds  that  are  practically  unlimited.  These 
forests  are  the  home  of  countless  wild  animals,  which 
are  said  to  be  more  numerous  in  kinds  or  orders  than 
in  any  other  region  of  the  world;  but  only  a  few  of 
these  can  here  be  mentioned. 

Of  all  the  beasts  of  prey  in  Brazil,  the  most  formi- 
dable and  the  most  common  is  the  jaguar,  or  South 


216  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

American  tiger,  usually  called  the  onsa  in  Brazil. 
These  onsas  are  of  three  kinds,  —  the  red,  the  spotted, 
and  the  black,  the  last  two  kinds  being  the  largest. 
The  length  of  a  large  specimen  is  from  six  to  seven 
feet,  but  an  ordinary  one  measures  about  four  feet 
from  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  This  animal 
does  not  stand  as  high  as  the  Asiatic  tiger,  but  is 
very  powerfully  built,  and  carries  off  cattle  with  ap- 
parent ease.  It  springs  upon  its  victim  and  strikes 
it  to  the  earth,  dead,  with  a  single  blow  of  its  power- 
ful paw.  It  seldom  attacks  human  beings  unless 
interfered  with  or  wounded.  The  spotted  onsa  is 
handsomel}7  marked,  and  the  skin  of  one  sells  at  Rio 
for  ten  dollars. 

The  English  naturalist,  Wallace,  while  out  with 
his  rifle  alone  in  the  forest  solitude  of  the  Amazon,  saw 
a  black  onsa  cross  his  path  a  little  way  ahead  of  him, 
walking  leisurely  along.  The  animal  stopped  a  few 
moments  and  looked  at  him.  Mr.  Wallace,  who  was 
an  excellent  shot,  relates  that  he  was  so  astonished 
and  impressed  by  the  magnificence  of  the  beast,  that 
he  never  thought  to  fire  at  it;  and  while  he  stood  in 
admiration,  the  onsa  disappeared. 

Mr.  Wallace  tells  us  that  "people  do  not  hunt  the 
orisa  for  amusement,  as  a  rule.  They  prefer  to  go 
a-gunning  for  almost  any  other  sort  of  game.  It  is 
only  when  a  planter  or  farmer  has  lost  sheep  after 
sheep,  or  other  kinds  of  live  stock,  and  the  circum- 
stances point  about  conclusively  to  the  onsa  as  the 
depredator,  that  he  assembles  his  neighbors,  with  their 
guns  and  dogs,  and  they  sally  out  to  bring  the  dreaded 
beast  to  destruction." 


HERDSMEN    AND    HUNTERS. 


217 


The  puma,  or  American  lion,  is  from  four  to  five  feet 
long,  but  more  commonly  of  the  former  size.  It  has  a 
tail  of  half  that  length,  which  has  no  terminating  brush 
of  hair  like  that  of  the  ordinary  lion ;  neither  has  the 
puma  a  mane.  Indeed,  the  name  of  lion  could  have 
been  given  to  it  only  by  careless  or  unscientific  observ- 
ers, as  its  uniform  color  is  the  sole  point  of  resemblance 
which  it  has  to  the  king  of  beasts.  It  has  a  small, 
round  head,  a  broad  and  rather  obtuse  muzzle,  and  a 


body  which,  in  proportion,  is  slenderer  and  less  elevated 
than  that  of  its  more  dignified  namesake.  As  it  pos- 
sesses much  timidity  and  little  swiftness,  and  fre- 
quents the  open  plains,  it  generally  falls  a  victim  to 
the  hunter's  unerring  lasso. 

The  puma  is  easily  tamed,  and  in  captivity  becomes 
tractable,  and  even  attached.  It  loves  to  be  noticed 
and  caressed,  expresses  its  pleasure  by  purring,  will 
follow  its  owner  about  like  a  dog,  and  has  been  known 
to  suffer  children  to  ride  upon  its  back. 


218  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  peccary,  perhaps  the  most  extensively  hunted 
animal  of  this  region,  is  a  curious  kind  of  wild  hog, 
and  is  generally  found  singly  or  in  pairs,  or  at  most  in 
small  herds  of  from  eight  to  ten.  It  is  a  comparatively 
harmless  creature,  not  being  inclined  to  attack  other 
animals  or  human  beings.  Its  color  is  dark  gray,  with 
a  white  band  passing  across  the  chest  from  shoulder  to 
shoulder.  The  length  of  the  head  and  body  is  about 
thirty-six  inches. 

The  white-lipped  peccary  is  rather  larger,  being  about 
forty  inches  in  length,  of  a  blackish  color,  with  the  lips 
and  lower  jaw  white.  These  animals  are  generally  met 
with  in  large  droves  of  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  or  more. 
They  are  of  a  more  pugnacious  disposition  than  the 
smaller  species,  and  are  capable  of  inflicting  severe 
wounds  with  their  sharp  tusks.  A  hunter  who  encoun- 
ters a  herd  of  them  in  a  forest  has  often  to  climb 
a  tree  as  his  only  chance  of  safety. 

Iguanas  are  much  sought  after  by  hunters.  They 
are  timid,  defenseless  animals,  depending  for  safety  on 

their  hiding-places 
in  the  treetops,  and 
on  their  dull,  pro- 
tective coloring, 
which  is  rendered 
even  more  effec- 
tive by  their  re- 
maining still  at 
the  approach  of 
danger.  Otherwise 
they  exhibit  few  signs  of  animal  intelligence. 

Mr.  Bates,  in  his  "Naturalist  on  the  Amazon,"  says: 


AN    IGUANA. 


HERDSMEN   AND   HUNTERS.  219 

"The  iguana  is  one  of  the  stupidest  animals  I  ever 
met.  The  one  I  caught  dropped  helplessly  from  a  tree 
just  ahead  of  me ;  it  turned  round  for  a  moment  to  have 
an  idiotic  stare  at  the  intruder,  and  then  set  off  run- 
ning along  the  path.  I  ran  after  it,  and  it  then 
stopped,  as  a  timid  dog  would  do,  crouching  down 
and  permitting  me  to  seize  it  by  the  neck  and  carry  it 
off.  The  natives  consider  its  flesh  a  great  delicacy, 
and  capture  it  easily,  as  it  sits  in  fancied  security  on 
the  branch  of  a  tree." 

Armadillos  are  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  peculiar 
nature  of  their  external  covering,  which  consists  of  a 
bony  case,  composed  partly  of  solid,  horny  plates,  and 
partly  of  movable  transverse  bands.  These  movable 
bands  differ  in  number  with  the  species,  and,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  with  the  age  and  sex  of  the  individual,  and 
they  give  to  the  entire  body  a  considerable  degree  of 
flexibility.  The  under  parts  are  destitute  of  bony  cov- 
ering, but  are  more  or  less  thickly  covered  with  hair. 
The  legs  of  the  armadillo  are  short,  and  its  movements 
are  usually  slow,  although,  when  pursued,  it  is  said  to 
be  able  to  outrun  a  man.  In  times  of  danger,  however, 
it  chiefly  depends  for  safety  on  its  long,  powerful  claws, 
by  means  of  which  it  can  bury  itself,  in  a  few  minutes, 
several  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Most  of 
the  species  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and  have 
small,  weak  eyes,  but  highly  developed  organs  of  hear- 
ing and  smelling.  These  animals  are  eaten  by  the  na- 
tives and  by  the  Portuguese  and  Spanish  inhabitants. 

The  armadillo  is  hunted  with  small  dogs,  which  soon 
overtake  it;  but  the  animal  stops  and  contracts  itself 
before  they  reach  it,  and  in  this  condition  it  is  taken 


220  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

and  carried  off.  If  the  armadillo  finds  itself  on  the 
brink  of  a  precipice,  it  can  escape  the  dogs  and  hunters 
by  rolling  up  and  dropping  like  a  ball,  without  injury 
to  its  scales. 


AN   ARMADILLO. 


The  agouti,  the  tapir,  several  species  of  monkeys, 
and  various  other  orders  of  smaller  animals  are  hunted 
either  for  their  flesh  or  for  their  skins. 

The  birds  of  the  forest  fare  little  better  than  their 
animal  neighbors.  In  hunting  birds  the  Indians  use  a 
curious  kind  of  blow-gun,  through  which  small  arrows 
are  discharged  with  remarkable  effect.  Professor  Orton 
says :  "  These  Indians  will  kill  more  birds  in  a  day  with 
the  blow-gun  than  the  most  experienced  hunter  could 
bring  down  with  a  rifle.  When  they  go  out  for  birds, 
they  use  arrows  only  a  few  inches  long.  Taking  a  posi- 
tion in  the  top  of  a  tree,  an  Indian  will  often  empty 
his  quiver,  bringing  down  bird  after  bird  as  fast  as  he 
can  load  and  shoot.  The  weapon  is  noiseless,  and  the 
man  remains  in  concealment  till  he  has  finished  his 
work  and  is  ready  to  pick  up  his  game," 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF  THE   ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC.     221 
CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF  THE   ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC. 

IN  1516,  twenty-four  years  after  the  first  landing  of 
Columbus  on  the  island  of  San  Salvador,  Juan  Diaz  de 
Soils,  pilot-in-chief  of  the  king  of  Spain,  made  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  He  called  it  Mar  Dulce, 
or  fresh  sea,  thinking  himself  in  the  waters  of  a  sea 
instead  of  a  river,  since  the  banks  are  so  widely  sepa- 
rated as  to  be  invisible  to  the  eye  of  the  mariner  who 
sails  at  an  equal  distance  from  each  side.  Both  Solis 
and  Sebastian  Cabot  believed  that  silver  could  be 
found  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  from  this  fact 
it  came  to  be  known  as  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  or  river 
of  silver. 

Although  the  king  of  Spain,  as  well  as  his  mariners, 
thought  that  silver  could  be  found  in  the  newly  dis- 
covered country,  nineteen  years  elapsed  before  the  first 
attempt  was  made,  by  Don  Pedro  de  Mendoza,  to 
establish  a  colony.  The  site  was  where  the  city  of 
Buenos  Aires  now  stands,  but  the  colony  was  soon 
destroyed  by  the  surrounding  Indians. 

It  was  in  1580,  sixty-four  years  after  the  coming 
of  Solis,  that  Buenos  Aires  was  really  founded  by 
Don  Juan  de  Garay,  with  only  sixty  followers,  who 
were  left  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  European  settle- 
ment, and  of  a  population  that  has  now  reached  663,000. 
In  the  meantime,  some  intrepid  explorers  had  succeeded 
in  marching  into  the  heart  of  the  country,  and  had 
founded  cities  that  afterward  became  the  capitals  of 
Drovinces. 


222  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  conquering  Spaniards  had  subjugated  so  much 
territory  by  1661,  and  established  so  many  colonies, 
that  the  king  of  Spain  found  it  necessary  to  create  an 
audiencia,  or  high  court,  in  Buenos  Aires,  and  to 
appoint  a  governor  and  captain  general  for  the  prov- 
inces of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  A  century  afterward  the 
colonies  were  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  viceroyalty,  and 
the  first  viceroy,  Don  Pedro  de  Cevallos,  was  appointed. 

England,  when  at  war  with  Spain  in  1806,  decided 
to  take  possession  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose sent  to  the  river  La  Plata  a  small  army  of  two  or 
three  thousand  soldiers,  under  command  of  Lord  Beres- 
ford.  The  city  then  had  about  40,000  inhabitants, 
wholly  devoid  of  military  experience,  and  it  was  easily 
taken.  It  was  not,  however,  easily  kept.  Two  months 
after  entering,  Beresford  was  compelled  to  withdraw, 
with  a  loss  of  half  his  men  killed  or  made  prisoners 
by  General  Liniers,  who  organized  and  commanded  the 
natives.  It  happened  that  the  Spanish  viceroy  fled 
when  Beresford  attacked  Buenos  Aires,  leaving  it  at 
the  mercy  of  the  English,  and  the  natives  won  their 
deliverance  from  the  British  by  their  own  efforts. 
This  may  justly  be  considered  as  the  first  step  toward 
independence.  Then  occurred  another  event  of  still 
greater  importance. 

England  sent  an  army  of  10,000  men,  which  landed 
near  Buenos  Aires,  in  1808,  and  proceeded  immedi- 
ately to  retake  the  city.  But  this  time  the  natives 
were  prepared;  the  10,000  soldiers  were  completely 
routed,  and  their  commander,  General  Whitelock, 
capitulated  on  the  day  of  the  attack.  The  flag  of 
the  famous  Seventy-first  Regiment  of  the  British  army, 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF   THE   ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC.     223 


which  gave  so  much  trouble  to  Napoleon  in  Egypt, 
with  many  others  of  almost  equal  note,  is  in  the 
cathedral  of  Buenos  Aires  as  a  souvenir  of  this  vic- 
tory. 

It  was  after  these  stirring  events  that  the  patriots 
began  to  whisper  about  ridding  themselves  of  the 
Spaniards,  as  they 
had  done  of  the 
English.  Whis- 
pers grew  louder 
as  news  was  re- 
ceived of  the  oc- 
cupation of  Spain 
by  the  armies  of 
Napoleon ;  and  on 
the  25th  of  May, 
1810,  the  first  cry 
of  independence 
was  raised.  The 
people  assembled 
in  the  public 
square  under  the 
leadership  of 
noted  patriots, 
and  demanded 
and  obtained  the 
resignation  of  the  viceroy.  He  was  replaced  by  a 
Junta,  composed  of  nine  members,  which  was  to  govern 
in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Spain.  But  the  king  of 
Spain  was  a  prisoner  of  Napoleon ;  and  very  soon  the 
Junta  began  to  govern  in  its  own  name,  and  the 
struggle  for  independence  began. 


STATUE  OF  GENERAL  SAN  MARTIN. 


224  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  task  of  achieving  independence  was  not  an  easy 
one.  Opposite  Buenos  Aires,  in  the  fortress  of  Monte- 
video, was  a  strong  Spanish  garrison,  which  could  be 
conveyed  to  the  city  to  dissolve  the  Junta.  In  what  is 
now  the  republic  of  Bolivia,  was  another  Spanish  army, 
and  from  Chile  and  Peru,  also,  troops  could  be  sent  to 
quell  any  attempt  at  insurrection.  The  Junta  found 
itself  in  a  great  dilemma,  surrounded  by  enemies,  and 
with  small  means  of  defence  at  its  disposal. 

Happily  the  garrison  of  Montevideo  could  not  abandon 
that  place  without  running  the  risk  of  its  being  taken 
by  the  Portuguese,  who  were  anxious  to  extend  their 
territory  toward  the  south  of  the  present  republic  of  Bra- 
zil. This  circumstance  permitted  the  Junta  to  dispatch 
several  revolutionary  expeditions  to  arouse  the  people  of 
the  interior  to  a  spirit  of  independence,  and  to  give 
battle  to  the  Spaniards  wherever  they  might  be  found. 

The  first  of  these  expeditions  was  sent  to  Paraguay 
under  the  command  of  General  Belgrano,  one  of  the 
most  noted  generals  of  the  Revolutionary  war.  The 
Paraguayans  did  not  respond  with  the  enthusiasm  that 
was  expected,  and  after  several  useless  fights  Belgrano 
had  to  return.  He  was  then  sent  to  the  northern  prov- 
inces, where  he  was  more  successful,  and  defeated  the 
Spanish  general  in  important  battles.  These  and  other 
victories  gave  the  Junta  reason  to  believe  that  the 
armies  sent  to  the  north  would  eventually  succeed  in 
reducing  the  power  of  Spain  in  Bolivia,  but  in  Decem- 
ber, 1813,  Belgrano  suffered  a  serious  defeat  from  the 
Spaniards  in  that  territory. 

From  1813  to  1817  several  battles  between  the 
Spaniards  and  the  Argentines  resulted  in  defeats  to 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF  THE   ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC.     225 

the  latter,  who  lost  all  the  advantages  previously 
gained  by  Belgrano.  Meanwhile,  the  government 
had  made  strenuous  efforts  to  take  the  fortress  of 
Montevideo.  They  constructed  a  small  navy  and  put 
it  under  the  command  of  William  Brown,  who  after- 
ward rose  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  Attacked  by  sea 
and  by  land,  Montevideo  was  at  last  taken  in  1814. 
This  important  capture  did  not  fail  to  inspire  the 
government  and  the  people  with  that  enthusiasm  of 
which  they  were  so  much  in  need.  Every  eye  was 
turned  now  to  the  new  general-in-chief  of  the  army, 
Don  Jos£  de  San  Martin,  of  whom  great  things  were 
expected. 

San  Martin,  although  born  on  Argentine  soil,  was 
educated  in  Spain,  where  he  had  joined  the  army  and 
distinguished  himself  in  the  campaign  against  Napo- 
leon. He  was  a  colonel  in  the  Spanish  service  when 
he  decided  to  resign  in  order  to  help  his  native  country 
in  the  war  with  Spain.  He  perceived  immediately 
that  it  was  necessary  to  risk  all  in  a  decisive  move  that 
would  surprise  as  well  as  crush  the  Spanish  forces. 
He  conceived  the  idea  of  crossing  the  lofty  Andes  and 
giving  battle  to  the  Spanish  soldiers  who  kept  Chile  in 
bondage,  thus  liberating  that  country,  and  also  Peru, 
from  the  Spanish  yoke.  The  obstacles  were  almost 
insurmountable,  and  the  enterprise  needed  a  great 
general  aiid  a  great  organizer.  Fortunately  San  Martin 
was  both. 

He  spent  considerable  time  in  recruiting,  organiz- 
ing, and  drilling  his  army,  composed  largely  of  gauchos, 
who  may  be  described  as  the  "  rough  riders  "  of  that 
region.  After  a  congress  of  representatives  from  the 


226 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


different  provinces  had  solemnly  declared  their  formal 
separation  and  independence  from  Spain,  General  San 
Martin  left  the  city  of  Mendoza,  at  the  head  of  his 
small  army  of  five  thousand  soldiers,  on  his  errand  of 
freedom. 


USPALLATA    PASS,  THROUGH   WHICH   SAN    MARTIN    MARCHED  TO  CHILE. 

Impossible  as  the  enterprise  seemed  to  many,  it  suc- 
ceeded; and  later  history  proves  that  this  was  the 
turning-point  in  the  fortunes  of  the  Argentines.  It 
took  San  Martin  only  tweny-five  days  to  cross  the 
Andes  with  his  army,  and  give  battle  to  the  Spanish 
general,  whom  he  defeated.  This  battle,  called  the 
battle  of  Chacabuco,  was  fought  on  the  12th  of  Febru- 
ary, 1817,  and  is  commemorated  by  the  Chilean  people 
as  the  battle  that  gave  them  their  independence.  In 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF  THE   ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC.     227 

grateful  acknowledgment  of  the  services  rendered,  two 
statues  have  been  erected  in  Santiago,  Chile,  —  one  of 
General  San  Martin,  and  the  other  in  honor  of  the  city 
of  Buenos  Aires. 

The  achievements  of  San  Martin  gave  the  death- 
blow to  the  power  of  Spain  in  Argentina,  Chile,  and 
Peru.  His  name  will  ever  rank  with  those  of  Wash- 
ington and  Bolivar,  the  other  two  great  American 
liberators.  Unlike  them,  however,  he  never  served  in 
a  civil  capacity  any  of  the  countries  he  liberated,  hav- 
ing, as  he  often  declared,  no  other  ambition  than  to  be 
successful  in  the  field. 

Following  the  great  revolutionary  struggle,  the 
Argentine  Republic  became  involved  in  war  with 
Brazil,  in  1825,  because  it  would  not  permit  that 
empire  to  annex  Uruguay.  This  war  lasted  three 
years,  and  many  battles  were  fought  on  land  and  sea. 
The  conflict  was  terminated  by  an  agreement  that  Brazil 
and  Argentina  should  guarantee  the  independence  of 
Uruguay. 

A  few  years  later  came  the  so-called  "night  of 
tyranny,"  with  the  government  of  Don  Juan  Manuel 
de  Rosas,  which  lasted  twenty -three  years,  from  1829 
to  1852.  During  this  period  occurred  the  ten  years' 
blockade  of  Buenos  Aires,  first  by  the  French,  and 
afterward  by  the  French  and  English  combined.  Rosas 
was  a  despotic  ruler,  and  many  were  the  attempts  made 
to  drive  him  from  power.  At  last  General  Urquiza 
managed  to  collect  a  sufficient  force  to  wage  successful 
war  against  him;  and  in  1852  he  defeated  the  army  of 
Rosas,  thus  putting  an  end  to  the  most  dictatorial 
government  that  the  Argentine  Republic  has  ever  had. 


228  THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

General  Urquiza  proceeded  to  organize  the  country 
upon  a  solid  basis.  The  government  of  Rosas  had 
shown  how  imperfect  were  all  the  previous  political 
constitutions  of  the  country,  and  how  necessary  it  was 
to  arrive  at  some  definite  organization.  In  1853  the 
national  Congress  put  in  operation  the  present  consti- 
tution of  the  republic,  which  is  practically  the  same 
as  that  of  the  United  States.  Since  then,  the  country 
has  successfully  maintained  its  freedom. 

During  the  administration  of  General  Bartoleme 
Mitre,  from  1862  to  1868,  the  Argentine  Republic, 
allied  with  Uruguay  and  Brazil,  had  to  sustain  a  war 
against  Paraguay,  General  Lopez  of  Paraguay  having 
seized  two  Argentine  gunboats  and  invaded  Argentine 
territory.  This  was  terminated  by  the  death  of  Lopez 
in  the  field,  and  the  almost  entire  annihilation  of  Para- 
guay. Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  Argentine 
army  remained  in  possession  of  Paraguayan  territory  at 
the  termination  of  hostilities,  an  agreement  was  made 
to  submit  to  arbitration  the  difference  which  had  arisen 
between  the  two  countries  out  of  their  respective  claims 
to  the  territory  called  El  Chaco.  The  President  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  Mr.  Rutherford  B. 
Hayes,  was  chosen  to  be  arbitrator,  and  his  decision 
was  in  favor  of  Paraguay. 

General  Mitre  was  succeeded  by  Domingo  Sarmiento, 
who  was  elected  president  while  representing  the 
Argentine  Republic  at  Washington.  He  was  a  great 
admirer  of  the  United  States,  and  showed  his  admira- 
tion by  the  introduction  of  many  measures  whose  bene- 
fits he  had  observed  during  his  stay  in  this  country. 
Several  new  institutions  of  learning  were  founded  by 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF  THE   ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC.     229 

his  efforts,  and  the  education  of  the  masses  received  his 
special  attention. 

Only  the  most  important  of  the  measures  taken  dur- 
ing the  administrations  of  the  different  presidents  can 
here  be  mentioned.  During  the  administration  of  Don 
Nicolas  Avellaneda,  General  Julio  A.  Roca,  minister  of 
war,  made  his  famous  expedition  to  the  south,  carrying 
civilization  to  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Negro,  reclaiming 
a  vast  area  of  land  from  the  Indians,  and  opening  it  to 
agricultural  uses.  To-day  the  whole  of  Patagonia  is 
free  from  Indian  control,  having  in  its  very  center  the 
prosperous  colony  of  Chubut.  This  is  connected  by 
railroad  with  its  nearest  seaport  on  the  Atlantic, 
whence  products  are  shipped  to  Europe.  It  has  seven 
churches  and  several  schools. 

General  Roca  became  the  next  president.  Up  to  this 
time  the  important  question  of  the  location  of  the 
capital  of  the  republic  had  not  been  settled  by  law, 
although  Buenos  Aires  had  been  the  seat  of  the  national 
government.  Buenos  Aires  was  also  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment for  the  province  of  the  same  name.  This  con- 
dition of  affairs  was  ended  by  a  law  which  declared  the 
city  of  Buenos  Aires  to  be  the  capital  of  the  republic. 
The  legislature  then  decided  to  build  a  new  capital  for 
the  province.  The  corner-stone  of  this  new  city,  La 
Plata,  was  laid  on  barren  ground  in  1882,  and  in  1886 
its  population  was  50,000,  and  has  now  risen  to  61,000. 

The  material  development  of  the  country  received  a 
great  impetus  during  General  Roca's  administration. 
Railroads  were  constructed  in  all  directions,  vast  areas 
of  land  were  opened  to  coloniz-ation,  and  the  country 
was  more  prosperous  than  ever  before.  The  cause  of 


230  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

popular  education  was  not  neglected.  In  1884,  Gen- 
eral Roca  inaugurated  fourteen  public  school  buildings 
in  the  city  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  two  years  later  forty 
more  were  established.  These  buildings  can  be  advan- 
tageously compared  with  any  used  for  the  same  purpose 
in  Europe  or  America. 


A    BUSINESS   STREET   IN    BUENOS   AIRES. 


President  Celman,  who  succeeded  General  Roca,  in 
1886,  had  many  difficulties  to  overcome.  A  financial 
crisis  swept  over  the  country,  and  the  people  held  him 
responsible  for  the  hard  times  which  followed.  A 
revolution  was  started  to  overthrow  him,  but  the  move- 
ment failed.  The  pressure  of  public  opinion,  however, 


A   GENERAL   VIEW   OF   ARGENTINA.  231 

forced  him  to  resign.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  vice- 
president,  Don  Carlos  Pelligrini,  whose  administration 
was  marked  by  tact  and  firmness.  Confronted  by  a 
financial  and  political  crisis,  he  was  able  to  carry  the 
country  successfully  through  most  trying  times. 

General  Roca  has  now  been  returned  to  the  presi- 
dency, and  the  country  is  the  most  prosperous  and 
progressive  of  the  South  American  republics. 

The  Argentine  constitutional  system,  in  its  outward 
form,  corresponds  closely  to  that  of  the  United  States. 
The  states  have  elective  governors  of  their  own,  and  are 
each  represented  in  the  upper  house  by  two  senators, 
chosen  for  nine  years.  The  members  of  the  lower 
house  are  elected  on  the  basis  of  population,  for  four 
years.  The  president  is  chosen  by  an  electoral  college. 
He  appoints  his  own  cabinet  and  wields  unrestricted 
executive  authority,  and  his  term  of  office  extends  over 
a  period  of  six  years. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 
A   GENERAL  VIEW  OF  ARGENTINA. 

ARGENTINA,  the  second  state  of  South  America  in 
size,  occupies  all  the  southern  part  of  the  continent,  ex- 
clusive of  Chile.  Its  area  is  about  one-third  as  large  as 
that  of  the  United  States.  It  has  developed  very  rapidly 
of  late,  and  will  probably  surpass  in  commercial  impor- 
tance all  the  other  countries  of  South  America. 

The  immense  length  of  Chile  and  Argentina  may  be 
understood  by  a  glance  at  the  map.  It  will  be  seen  that 


232  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

in  latitude  Argentina  has  an  extent  almost  equal  to  the 
distance  from  the  southern  point  of  Florida  to  the  north- 
ern part  of  Labrador.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Paraguay,  Bolivia,  and  Brazil ;  on  the  west  and  south  by 
Chile;  and  on  the  east  by  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  Its  area  is  1,118,000  square  miles, 
and  its  population  is  between  four  and  five  millions. 

Excepting  the  northern  and  Andean  provinces,  which 
are  mountainous,  the  country  may  be  regarded  as  an 
unbroken  plain,  stretching  from  the  foot  of  the  Andes 
to  the  Atlantic  coast.  It  has  been  said  that  the  longest 
straight  railroad  line  of  the  world  can  be  laid  in  the 
Argentine  Republic.  In  the  interior  are  large  tracts 
covered  with  volcanic  ashes.  Upon  the  pampas,  or 
southern  plains,  great  herds  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep 
are  raised;  and  it  is  one  of  the  few  lands  of  the  world 
in  which  horses  still  run  wild. 

For  nearly  two  hundred  miles  west  of  La  Plata  River 
the  soil  produces  a  luxuriant  growth  of  herbage,  which 
is  choked,  however,  in  many  places  by  extensive  forests 
of  gigantic  thistles  which  grow  to  such  a  height  that  men 
passing  through  them  on  horseback  are  hidden  by  the 
lofty  stems.  So  heavy  is  this  growth  that,  at  times,  the 
thistle  fields  are  impassable  to  man,  and  serve  the  wild 
animals  of  the  pampas  as  an  undisturbed  lair.  These 
thistles  are  fired,  from  time  to  time,  by  the  gauchos ;  and 
after  the  ground  that  they  covered  has  been  burnt  over,  a 
fine  sweet  crop  of  grass  starts  up,  on  which  the  cattle  feed. 

Although  the  mountainous  west  is  unfit  for  agricul- 
tural pursuits,  there  are  many  fertile  valleys,  particularly 
in  the  province  of  Jujuy,  where  wheat,  tobacco,  sugar 
cane,  rice,  and  other  products  are  abundantly  cultivated. 


A   GENERAL  VIEW   OF   ARGENTINA. 


233 


This  region  is  noted  for  its  immense  forests  and  its  great 
abundance  of  water. 

The  southern  part  of  Argentina,  from  the  Rio  Negro 
to  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  is  known  as  Patagonia.  The 
land  directly  bordering  on  the  strait  and  a  large  part  of 


PATAGONIANS. 


the  island  south  of  it,  called  Tierra  del  Fuego,  belong 
to  Chile  ;  but  the  eastern  part  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  forms 
part  of  Argentina.  This  section  of  South  America  is  but 
little  known. 

The  Patagonians,  so  called  from  their  large  feet,  or 
rather  from  the  large  footprints  which  guided  the  early 


234  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

explorers  to  their  haunts,  are  migratory  Indians,  of 
sturdy  frame  and  immense  bodily  strength,  many  of  them 
being  over  six  feet  in  height.  They  have  large  heads 
and  high  cheek-bones,  like  the  North  American  Indians, 
whom  they  also  resemble  in  their  complexion,  though  it 
is  a  shade  or  two  darker.  Their  foreheads  are  broad 
but  low,  with  the  hair  covering  them  nearly  to  the 
brows ;  the  eyes  are  full,  generally  black  or  of  a  dark 
brown,  and  brilliant,  though  expressive  of  but  little 
intelligence. 

They  are  now  greatly  reduced  in  number,  and  are 
more  friendly  to  the  whites  than  in  former  times. 
Indeed,  numerous  trading  stations  have  been  established 
among  them,  and  the  prospect  for  further  advancement 
in  this  direction  is  excellent. 

Both  the  federal  and  the  several  provincial  govern- 
ments have  attracted  colonists  to  the  country  by  offer- 
ing great  inducements,  such  as  liberal  grants  of  land 
and  temporary  loans  of  money  at  a  low  rate  of  interest. 
The  province  of  Santa  F£,  in  particular,  has  passed 
numerous  laws  donating  lands  for  the  establishment  of 
colonies ;  but  now  that  these  colonies  are  in  a  prosper- 
ous condition,  it  leaves  to  individual  effort  the  easy  task 
of  establishing  others. 

The  federal  government  is  richer  than  the  provincial 
governments,  and  has  been  more  liberal.  Not  only  has 
it  given  free  grants  of  land,  but  it  has  advanced  to 
each  colonist  capital,  to  the  extent  of  $  1,000,  in  oxen, 
instruments  of  labor,  and  food,  to  be  paid  back  in  five 
years. 

Great  attention  is  paid  to  education  in  the  Argentine 
Republic,  and  the  system  of  schools  is  based  on  that 


A   GENERAL  VIEW   OF   ARGENTINA.  235 

of  the  United  States.  Education  is  free  to  all,  and  boys 
and  girls  between  the  ages  of  six  and  fourteen  must 
attend  school.  There  is  at  present  one  school  for  every 
thousand  inhabitants.  Buenos  Aires  and  the  city  of 
Cordoba  have  each  a  university.  There  are  also  mili- 
tary and  naval  academies  ;  and  in  San  Juan  there  is 


THE    RAILROAD   OVER    THE   ANDES. 


an  academy  of  mining  engineers.  Several  trade  schools 
have  been  established,  and  they  are  said  to  be  of  a  very 
high  order. 

Over  twenty  daily  newspapers  are  published  in 
Buenos  Aires.  The  leading  paper,  La  Prensa,  has  a 
circulation  of  about  50,000,  and  the  others  are  very 
well  patronized. 

The  importance  of  public  libraries  has  been  fully  rec- 


236  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

ognized  by  the  Argentines,  and  there  are  at  present 
more  than  two  hundred  in  the  country.  They  are 
chiefly  due  to  private  gifts,  but  the  government  in  every 
case  adds  an  equal  sum  to  any  endowment.  A  special 
commission  exists  for  the  administration  of  libraries. 

The  national  observatory  at  Cordoba  was  erected  in 
1871,  under  the  direction  of  B.  A.  Gould,  who  has  here 
constructed  an  atlas  of  all  the  stars  visible  to  the  naked 
eye  from  the  south  pole  to  the  tenth  declension,  with 
their  apparent  magnitudes.  The  observatory  has  an 
eleven-inch  refractor  by  Fitz,  with  photographic  object- 
glass,  which  has  been  extensively  employed  for  taking 
photographs  of  southern  star  clusters.  The  results  of 
this  work  are  now  being  published. 

Argentina  has  a  magnificent  railway  system.  There 
are  in  actual  working  order  at  least  twenty-two  lines  of 
railway,  with  a  total  extension  of  9000  miles  and  an 
aggregate  capital  of  $300,000,000.  Thirty  new  lines, 
in  course  of  construction,  make  about  9700  miles,  and 
employ  a  proportionate  amount  of  capital. 

The  Buenos  Aires  Great  Southern  line  is,  in  most 
respects,  the  best  line  in  the  country.  It  has  a  greater 
mileage  and  a  larger  amount  of  capital,  and  is  better 
equipped,  than  any  other  railway  in  the  republic.  Its 
terminus  in  Plaza  Constitucion  is  the  finest  railway  sta- 
tion in  South  America.  The  Buenos  Aires  and  Rosario 
line  ranks  next  in  importance.  It  possesses  no  ter- 
minus of  its  own  in  the  federal  capital,  but  uses  the 
Central  Station  in  Paseo  de  Julio  in  common  with  sev- 
eral other  roads. 

Passenger  accommodations  on  Argentine  railways  are 
of  a  superior  order.  The  cars  are  built  principally  on 


A   GENERAL   VIEW   OF   ARGENTINA. 


237 


the  Pullman  plan,  but  are  more  solidly  upholstered,  and 
adapted,  of  course,  to  the  needs  of  the  climate.  The 
Rosario  is  the  best  line  for  travelers,  as  its  long- 
distance trains  are  well  equipped  with  the  conven- 
iences of  travel.  The  southern  railway  coaches,  though 
superbly  fitted  up,  are  less  comfortable  for  long  journeys. 
The  passengers  are  confined  to  one  particular  compart- 


A  GAUCHO  AND    HIS    HORSES. 


ment,  and  there  are  no  arrangements  of  any  sort  for 
refreshments.  On  several  lines  the  sleeping  accom- 
modations are  excellent,  and  at  a  trifling  extra  cost 
private  compartments  may  be  secured.  Nearly  all  the 
saloon  cars  on  the  Argentine  railways  are  built  in 
England. 

This  great  system  of  railways  is  important,  both  in 
the   development  of  the   country  and  in   furnishing  a 


238  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

route  across  the  continent  from  Buenos  Aires  to  Val- 
paraiso. Thirty  years  ago  Argentina  was  a  pastoral 
country  exporting  only  wool,  hides,  and  tallow ;  but  its 
fine  system  of  railroads,  together  with  the  use  of  Ameri- 
can machinery,  now  enables  it  to  compete  with  the  great 
agricultural  and  manufacturing  countries. 

Many  of  the  gauchos,  or  herdsmen,  who  dwell  upon 
the  plains -of  Argentina  are  descended  from  the  best 
blood  of  Spain,  and,  in  spite  of  their  rough  ways,  they 
frequently  display  a  great  deal  of  courtly  dignity.  They 
salute  each  other  with  much  formality,  and  are  always 
polite  to  strangers  passing  through  their  country, 
though  often  quite  the  reverse  to  those  who  come  to 
settle  among  them. 

The  Argentine  people  have  wasted  torrents  of  blood 
in  revolutions  and  national  wars  ;  but  they  are  an  indus- 
trious, active,  and  hard-working  people.  They  pursue 
a  policy  of  conciliation  in  the  conduct  of  their  domestic 
affairs,  and  of  peace  by  means  of  arbitration  in  interna- 
tional matters.  They  afford  conclusive  proofs  of  an 
assured  progress,  and  their  country  provides,  after  the 
United  States,  the  favorite  field  for  European  invest- 
ments and  immigration.  The  transformation  has  been 
as  complete  as  it  has  been  rapid. 

Such  are  the  fruits  of  forty  years  of  constant  and 
energetic  labor  for  the  instruction  of  the  masses.  Popu- 
lar education  has  been  the  safeguard  of  the  Argentine 
nationality,  and  it  is  to-day  the  unchangeable  basis  of  its 
independence. 


BUENOS   AIRES   AND    LA    PLATA.  239 

CHAPTER   XXX. 
BUENOS  AIRES  AND   LA   PLATA. 

NOTHING  so  quickly  and  so  completely  reveals  the 
energy  and  progress  of  the  Argentine  nation  as  a  view 
of  the  capital  city  of  Buenos  Aires.  The  new  harbor, 
even  in  its  unfinished  state,  is  a  magnificent  piece  of 


THE  OLD  WAY  OF   UNLOADING   VESSELS. 


engineering.  So  great  was  the  wash  of  sand  inshore, 
before  the  building  of  the  artificial  harbor,  that  the 
heaviest  ocean  steamers  were  forced  to  anchor  from 
twelve  to  twenty  miles  from  the  city,  landing  passen- 
gers by  steam  tenders  and  sail-boats,  and  discharging 
their  cargoes  by  lighters.  Now,  however,  with  three 
miles  of  modern  docks,  extending  along  the  city  front, 
costing  about  $25,000,000,  all  this  is  changed.  Buenos 
Aires  will  soon  have  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the 
world. 


240  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  city  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  La  Plata 
River,  which  is  twenty-four  miles  wide  at  this  point. 
A  little  stream  flows  through  the  city  and  empties  into 
the  larger  one.  The  city  has  a  frontage  of  four  miles 
on  the  river,  and  from  that  base  has  shot  out  north, 
south,  and  west  over  a  level  plain,  vastly  increasing  its 
population  and  developing  an  immense  volume  of  busi- 
ness. It  is  the  most  important  railway  center  of  South 
America,  and  forms  the  outlet  for  the  continental 
wheat  belt.  It  is  the  chief  center  for  killing  and  mar- 
keting the  cattle  of  the  stock-raising  pampas.  It  com- 
mands a  river  system  exceeding  in  volume  that  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  its  commerce  has  expanded  into  enor- 
mous compass.  It  is  fairly  pulsating  with  vitality, 
enterprise,  and  ambition,  and  has  absolute  faith  in  its 
destiny  as  one  of  the  chief  commercial  centers  of  the 
world. 

Buenos  Aires  is  rich  in  public  buildings.  Its  theaters 
and  places  of  public  resort  are  numerous.  Other  not- 
able buildings  are  the  governor's  mansion,  the  House  of 
Representatives,  the  Hall  of  Justice,  the  Tribunal  of 
Commerce,  the  Artillery  Arsenal,  the  Museum  of  Natu- 
ral History,  the  Public  Library,  and  the  Mint.  The 
stock  exchange  is  a  vast  structure  with  a  spacious  hall 
surrounded  by  a  gallery,  where  scenes  of  excitement 
and  reckless  speculation  have  been  enacted,  rivaling 
those  of  Wall  Street  in  the  most  feverish  times. 

The  picturesque  beauties  of  Bahia,  and  the  majestic 
mountain  scenery  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  are  lacking  here. 
The  streets  are  uniform  in  narrowness,  and  the  shops 
and  houses  have  a  sameness  that  is  monotonous.  Excep- 
tion must  be  made  in  favor  of  the  churches,  which  are 


BUENOS  AIRES   AND    LA   PLATA.  241 

the  handsomest  to  be  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
South  America.  The  cathedral  was  begun  in  1580 
and  rebuilt  in  1752,  and  the  imposing  facade  was  subse- 
quently added  by  General  Rosas,  a  tyrant  who  needed 
to  do  something  for  religion  to  atone  for  his  crimes 
against  liberty. 

Buenos  Aires  has  lost,  to  a  greater  extent  than  any 
other  of  the  South  American  cities,  the  Spanish  aspect 
which  characterized  it  for  three  centuries.  A  long 
time  ago  it  broke  the  chains  that  bound  it  to  Seville  and 
Cadiz.  The  Sevillians  seem  to  have  forgotten  the  time 
when  they  furnished  every  commercial  commodity  to 
the  cities  of  Spanish  America.  So  completely  has  all 
this  been  changed  that  the  Argentine  Republic  now 
takes  nothing  from  Spain. 

It  is  now  difficult  to  find  in  Buenos  Aires  the  old- 
fashioned  Spanish  house.  Even  the  houses  built  by 
the  natives  thirty  or  forty  years  ago  have  almost  dis- 
appeared and  been  replaced  by  modern  buildings.  The 
government  house  is  modern,  being  a  mixture  of  Ital- 
ian and  French  architecture.  One  half  of  it,  whicli 
for  a  time  was  used  as  a  post-office,  is  a  reproduction,  on 
a  small  scale,  of  the  Tuileries  at  Paris ;  and  the  other 
half,  built  afterward,  resembles  an  Italian  palace  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

The  plaza  or  square,  which  was  laid  out  in  1580,  con- 
tinues to  serve  the  purpose  of  beautifying  the  city  and 
forming  a  pleasure  resort  for  the  people.  Many  public 
buildings  face  upon  it;  among  others,  the  government 
house,  the  Custom  House,  the  City  Hall,  Congress  Hall, 
the  cathedral,  the  palace  of  the  archbishop,  the  Colon 
theater,  and  the  bank. 


242  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  great  traffic  of  this  part  of  the  city  overflows  into 
the  adjacent  streets.  At  every  step,  evidences  of  busi- 
ness activity  are  apparent ;  and  the  noise  produced  by 
innumerable  carts,  tramways,  and  carriages  of  every 
description  reminds  one  of  the  reality,  here  as  else- 
where, of  the  great  struggle  of  life. 

The  portion  of  the  city  occupied  by  private  residences 
surrounds  the  business  part,  and  the  farther  one  gets 
from  the  business  center,  the  more  numerous  are  the 
modern  houses.  New  streets  are  being  opened  all  the 
time ;  and  grounds  which  not  long  ago  were  used 
for  the  raising  of  food-stuffs  are  now  covered  with 
fashionable  dwellings.  Everywhere  are  seen  new  build- 
ings entirely  different  from  the  antique  style  of  archi- 
tecture. Many  rich  families  have  set  the  example  by 
building  beautiful  homes,  in  which  they  display  a  luxury 
unknown  before. 

Many  residences  are  designed  from  Parisian  private 
houses,  the  chalets  of  Norway,  Moorish  alcazars,  Italian 
palaces,  or  the  great  castles  of  France,  while  others 
are  modeled  after  Spanish  castles.  A  large  part  of 
the  furniture  for  these  residences  comes  from  Paris. 
Splendid  tapestries,  paintings  of  the  best  masters,  and 
other  objects  of  art  are  to  be  found ;  and  several  Pari- 
sian business  firms  have  sent  their  own  men  to  superin- 
tend the  furnishing  of  these  dwellings. 

The  state  does  not  provide  residences  for  officials. 
The  President  and  his  ministers  go  each  morning  to  the 
government  house  to  transact  the  business  of  the  day ; 
but  they  all  live  in  their  own  houses,  more  or  less  ele- 
gant according  to  their  private  means.  A  man  occupy- 
ing a  high  position  in  the  government  is  not  required  to 


BUENOS   AIRES   AND    LA    PLATA. 


243 


have  a  grand  establishment,  and  salaries  are  not  suffi- 
cient to  allow  them  to  live  in  luxury,  apart  from  other 
sources  of  income. 

As  the  soil  is  impregnated  with  nitrate  of  potash, 
water  from  wells  and  similar  sources  is  rendered  unfit 
for  table  use.  Until  recently  the  wealthier  citizens 


THE    MILKMAN'S    MORNING    CALL. 


had  deep  cisterns  at  their  residences,  in  which  rain 
water  was  preserved;  but  the  poorer  classes  had  no 
other  beverage  than  the  river  water,  which  was  carried 
around  the  city  in  barrels  upon  horses  and  mules,  and  re- 
tailed at  a  moderate  price.  Modern  water  works  are  now 
in  operation,  and  the  water  carriers  are  no  longer  seen. 


244  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  principal  driving  park  of  Buenos  Aires  is  La 
Palermo,  with  an  area  of  840  acres.  Its  two  fine  drive- 
ways are  bordered  with  palms  and  firs,  and  illuminated 
at  night  with  a  glare  of  electric  light.  Here  large 
numbers  of  carriages  are  to  be  seen  on  Sundays  and 
Thursdays,  the  favorite  days  of  the  wealthy  classes. 

Of  this  park  an  English  writer  says  :  "  Successive 
mayors  have  done  their  best  to  add  to  the  embellish- 
ment of  this  beautiful  park,  but  it  was  left  to  an  Eng- 
lishman to  give  it  the  crowning  beauty  by  establishing 
arches  of  electric  lights,  by  which  the  gayety  of  the  day 
might  be  prolonged  into  the  night.  Coming  suddenly 
by  train  out  of  the  darkness  into  the  broad  belt  of 
brilliant  light  crossing  the  avenue  of  palms,  catching  a 
rapid  glimpse,  as  you  rush  b}^  of  the  endless  string  of 
carriages  and  figures  on  horseback,  is  like  taking  a 
momentary  peep  into  fairyland.  When  one  is  among 
the  gay  throng,  however,  the  weird  shadows  of  the  trees, 
and  the  dazzling  electric  light,  throwing  over  everything 
a  glamour  as  of  moonlight,  leave  an  impression  on  the 
mind  like  the  first  reading  of  4  A  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream.' " 

No  city  in  the  world  of  equal  size  and  population  can 
compare  with  Buenos  Aires  for  the  number  and  extent 
of  its  tramways.  The  urban  railroads  stretch  beyond 
the  city  boundaries  to  the  outlying  districts,  north, 
south,  and  west,  for  distances  of  twelve  or  fifteen 
miles ;  and  tracks  are  started  which,  when  completed, 
will  extend  for  hundreds  of  miles  into  the  provinces, 
connecting  many  of  the  most  important  colonies  and, 
in  a  great  measure,  superseding  steam  roads.  There 
are  seven  tramway  companies  in  the  city,  and  the 


BUENOS   AIRES   AND    LA    PLATA.  245 

combined  length  of  their  roads  amounts  to  no  less 
than  179  miles.  The  number  of  passengers  carried 
in  a  recent  year  was  over  55,000,000,  or  an  average 
of  152,000  per  day. 

The  foreign  population  of  the  city  numbers  over 
200,000 ;  and  the  customs  of  the  people  have  been  so 
completely  Europeanized  that  little  trace  is  left  of  the 
early  Spanish  customs.  The  people  as  a  whole  are 
of  high  intelligence,  and  take  a  great  interest  in  the 
education  of  their  children.  They  are  great  lovers  of 
amusements,  and  the  numerous  theaters  and  the  race 
tracks  are  liberally  patronized. 

La  Plata  was  a  city  built  to  order  in  an  incredibly 
short  period,  and  was  at  once  a  success  and  a  failure. 
It  was  laid  out  on  paper,  in  1881,  by  the  Governor  of 
Buenos  Aires,  and  designed  to  be,  like  Washington,  a 
city  of  magnificent  distances.  Buenos  Aires,  from  his- 
toric times  the  capital  of  the  province,  had  been  made 
the  capital  of  the  Argentine  nation  after  a  protracted 
political  and  sectional  struggle.  President  Roca  deter- 
mined to  build  a  new  capital  for  the  province,  which 
would  be  at  once  spacious,  handsome,  and  modern.  The 
provincial  government  was  moved  here  from  Buenos 
Aires  in  1884. 

La  Plata  lies  to  the  south  of  Buenos  Aires,  a  two 
hours'  journey  distant  by  railway.  The  train  draws  up 
into  a  large  and  well-appointed  depot.  A  broad  avenue, 
lined  with  palaces,  stretches  in  either  direction  for  a 
considerable  distance.  These  stately  structures,  with 
their  marble  colonnades  and  imposing  facades,  are  the 
finest  to  be  found  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

The  corner-stone  of   La  Plata  was  laid  in  a^  barren 


246 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


waste  on  the  19th  of  November,  1882.  An  idea  of  the 
wonderful  growth  of  the  city  can  be  gathered  from  the 
fact  that,  in  less  than  three  years  from  the  date  of  its 
foundation,  its  population  reached  30,000.  The  actual 
population  of  La  Plata  at  the  present  time  is  over 
60,000. 


THU   MUNICIPAL    DUILD.N3   AT    LA    PLATA. 

An  English  traveler  wrote  of  this  city,  a  year  or  two 
ago,  in  the  following  glowing  terms  :  "  We  shall  not  soon 
forget  our  own  astonishment  when  we  first  beheld  the 
lights  of  La  Plata.  We  had  been  shooting  all  day  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Punta  Lara,  and  were  making  our  way, 
toward  evening,  in  the  direction  of  Pereira  station  on  the 
Ensenada  line.  There  was  no  moon,  and  almost  sud- 
denly night  overtook  us ;  and  then,  more  suddenly  still, 
as  we  turned  a  bend  in  the  road,  there  burst  upon  our 
astonished  gaze  a  dazzling  blaze  of  light,  and  we  thought 


BUENOS   AIRES   AND    LA    PLATA.  247 

we  must  at  least  have  stumbled  upon  fairyland.  We 
turned  our  horses'  heads  toward  the  light,  entered  the 
enchanted  city,  stayed  all  night  and  the  next  day,  and 
were  never  afterward  tired  of  visiting  and  studying  this 
wonderful  city  —  this  dream  of  marble  halls  and  boule- 
vards. 

"Nothing  in  the  history  of  Argentina  is  more  remark- 
able than  the  creation  of  this  city.  Within  the  short 
space  of  two  years,  in  a  tract  of  the  wilderness,  arose, 
as  if  by  magic,  a  city  of  palaces,  plazas,  broad  avenues, 
and  parks.  The  tribunales  at  La  Plata  are  as  fine  as 
any  law  courts  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  There  is  a 
judgment  room  which  they  show  the  visitor,  more  like 
a  monarch's  throne  room  than  a  judiciary  bench.  It  has 
a  raised  dais,  and  is  gorgeously  upholstered  in  rich  crim- 
son plush  and  gold  ;  has  curtains,  cushions,  and  carpets 
equal  to  those  in  Windsor's  state  apartments." 

La  Plata  has  its  port  at  Ensenada,  which  is  in  com- 
munication with  the  city  by  means  of  a  railroad  and  a 
canal.  But  every  attempt  to  convert  the  port  into  a 
commercial  center  has  failed.  La  Plata  lacks  business 
and  industrial  resources.  The  provincial  government 
does  not  further  the  commercial  interests  of  the  city ; 
but  time  will  doubtless  bring  to  this  problem  the  neces- 
sary .solution. 


248 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 
SOCIAL  AND   DOMESTIC  LIFE. 

THE  following  description,  by  a  Scotch  lady,  gives 
an  excellent  idea  of  domestic  life  in  Argentina :  — 

"  Housekeeping  at  home,  within  easy  reach  of  shops 
and  stores,  with  gas  and  water  laid  on,  and  the  milk- 
men more  punctual  in  appearing  than  the  sun,  is  child's 


CROSSING  THE  TRACKLESS    PAMPAS. 


play  in  comparison  with  housekeeping  abroad,  where 
you  must  have  under  your  own  roof  sufficient  resources 
of  your  own  providing  for  every  need  likely  to  arise. 
Our  estancia  (farm)  is  forty  miles  from  a  railway  sta- 
tion; the  ground  was  broken  up  and  fenced,  and  the 
house  built  only  three  years  since,  and  we  consider 
ourselves  fortunate  in  being  on  the  route  of  a  mail- 
coach  which  drives  across  the  literally  pathless  plain 
twice  a  week.  It  is  impossible  to  describe  the  bare  flat- 
ness of  the  camp  (prairie)  around  us.  Not  a  tree,  not 


SOCIAL   AND    DOMESTIC    LIFE.  249 

a  stone,  not  a  hillock,  not  a  road.  Short  grass,  filled 
with  delicate  wild  flowers,  grows  in  tufts  here  and 
there  on  the  plain,  which  stretches  away,  hard  and 
level  as  a  table,  from  our  fences  to  the  horizon,  under 
a  dome  of  the  clearest  blue  sky,  each  farm  lying  like  a 
solitary  island  in  a  boundless  sea. 

"In  the  Argentine  Republic  servants  of  all  nation- 
alities are  to  be  found,  but  Irish  women  are  preferred, 
as  they  are  clever,  good-tempered,  and  hard-working; 
but  they  easily  find  places  in  the  towns,  and  for  camp 
life  one  has  to  be  content  with  Spaniards  or  Italians. 
A  man  and  a  girl  carry  on  all  the  work  of  the  house. 
The  man  is  an  excellent  cook,  able  to  send  up,  with  the 
help  of  a  Spanish  cookery  book,  what  our  old  cook  in 
Scotland  called  'pairty  dishes,'  whenever  the  spirit 
moves  him.  The  girl  helps  me  in  many  ways,  and 
does  all  the  washing  and  ironing  and  rougher  house- 
work. Washing  is  carried  on  in  the  patio  with  cold 
water,  soap,  and  plenty  of  sunshine,  making  the  linen 
whiter  and  sweeter  than  any  steam  laundry  can  do. 

"The  patio  is  ordinarily  a  feature  of  Spanish  and 
South  American  houses.  It  is  an  open  court  exposed 
to  the  sky,  round  which  the  house  is  built,  and  into 
which  the  doors  of  the  various  apartments  lead.  The 
floor  is  usually  tiled;  tangerine  and  almond  trees,  in 
tubs,  will  frequently  be  ranged  a  short  distance  from 
the  walls,  and  sometimes  a  fountain  will  play  in  the 
center.  The  surrounding  rooms,  besides  having  doors 
into  the  patio,  always  have  intercommunication,  so 
that  the  circuit  of  the  house  can  be  made  without  cross- 
ing this  part.  Instead  of  a  central  patio,  or  in  addition 
to  it,  there  is  often  a  gallery,  the  latter  differing  from 


250  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

the  former  only  in  being  roofed  in  and  open  in  front. 
It  generally  fulfills  the  function  of  a  cool  and  pleasant 
sitting  room. 

"Another  feature  of  Argentine  country  houses  is 
that  there  is  very  seldom  an  upper  floor.  All  the 
rooms,  whether  for  purposes  of  eating  or  resting,  are 
on  the  ground.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  violence 
of  the  pampero  —  that  mighty  wind  which,  rising  in 
the  far  southwest,  gains  in  strength  as  it  sweeps 
unchecked  across  the  treeless  and  level  pampas  — 
would  render  lofty  houses  unsafe,  however  well  they 
might  be  built.  The  roof,  which  is  nearly  flat,  is  care- 
fully kept  clean,  as  on  it  is  collected  the  supply  of  rain 
water,  which  is  conducted  by  pipes  to  the  capacious 
cistern  at  the  back  of  the  house.  The  general  aspect  of 
the  interior  is,  according  to  our  notions,  usually  bare, 
but  really  well  suited  to  the  climate. 

"  Let  me  give  you  an  idea  of  how  our  day  passes. 
Spring  is  now  (November)  far  advanced,  and  the  days 
get  hot;  so  we  are  all  up  soon  after  sunrise,  arid  have, 
at  six  o'clock,  a  cup  of  tea  and  a  biscuit.  The  servants 
use  mate,  or  native  tea.  The  first  work  is  churning, 
before  the  day  grows  hot.  At  eight  the  bell  on  the 
meat-house  rings  for  breakfast.  The  meat-house  is  a 
small  brick  building  in  the  farmyard,  somewhat  like  a 
chapel,  with  a  bell  hung  above  the  gable.  A  steaming 
dish  of  porridge  is  welcome,  and  so  good  that  no  one 
would  guess  the  oatmeal  was  from  a  tin.  At  noon, 
the  bell  rings  again  for  lunch,  a  substantial  meal,  for 
the  hard  work  in  this  strong  fine  air  makes  every  one 
hungry.  We  begin  with  soup,  then  invariably  the 
national  dish,  puchero-mutton  boiled  with  vegetables 


SOCIAL   AND    DOMESTIC    LIFE. 


251 


of  all  sorts  —  an  excellent  dish.  Then  comes  a  dish  of 
eggs,  cooked  variously.  Fish,  alas,  is  only  to  be  had 
in  tins,  and  is  too  expensive  for  everyday  use.  Some- 
times Juan  surprises  us  Avith  a  novelty,  as  when,  the 


THE   PATIO. 


other  day,  he  sent  in  a  young  armadillo  cooked  in  its 
shell,  and  standing  with  a  painfully  lifelike  air,  on 
the  points  of  his  dainty  little  toes.  I  made  myself  eat 
a  little,  and  it  was  really  very  good. 

"  Luncheon  ends  with  biscuit  and  a  cup  of  coffee.     I 
should  explain  that  this  camp  biscuit  takes  the  place 


252  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

of  all  bread.  It  is  round  as  a  ball,  perfectly  crisp  and 
hard,  good,  but,  from  its  hardness,  tiresome  to  eat." 

Sunday  is  always  a  holiday  in  Argentina.  In  the 
country  districts  especially,  the  people  spend  the  day 
in  visiting  friends,  drinking  mate,  and  talking  by  the 
hour.  Many  loaf  around  the  country  stores,  where 
races  take  place  and  raffles  are  gotten  up,  and  where 
they  get  drunk  on  cana,  the  native  drink,  made  from 
sugar  cane. 

The  native  Argentine  frequently  has  a  prejudice 
against  trees,  believing  their  proximity  to  be  unhealthy ; 
so  he  will  often  cut  down  all  those  near  the  house,  and 
lay  out  a  garden  after  the  French  fashion,  in  geometri- 
cal patterns.  Sometimes,  however,  the  vegetation  is 
allowed  free  scope,  and  trees  and  flowers,  fruit  and 
vegetables,  grow  luxuriantly  under  the  directing  hands 
of  the  gardeners,  who  are  almost  invariably  Italians. 
In  such  gardens  one  may  observe  the  giant  eucalyptus 
tree,  which  sheds  its  bark  in  winter  and  keeps  its 
leaves,  and  for  several  months  looks  like  a  beggar 
clothed  in  rags,  standing  proudly  alongside  of  the 
yellow-flowered  acacia.  Roses  abound  everywhere, 
spreading  abroad  their  sweet  fragrance  all  the  year 
round.  In  the  spring  the  perfume  of  violets  is  almost 
overpowering,  so  plentiful  are  these  usually  unobtru- 
sive flowers. 

Living  creatures,  too,  announce  their  presence  on 
every  hand.  The  air  is  filled  with  the  twittering  of 
birds  and  the  buzzing  of  insects.  As  one  walks  through 
these  gardens,  innumerable  canaries  fly  rustling  from  the 
trees,  and  dragon-flies  and  humming-birds  dart  about 
in  surprising  numbers,  riot  singly,  but  in  swarms. 


SOCIAL   AND    DOMESTIC    LIFE.  253 

In  the  kitchen  gardens  strawberries  are  ripe  through 
a  large  part  of  the  year,  and  tomatoes,  sheltered  from 
the  sun  by  their  broad  leaves,  are  cool  in  hottest  sum- 
mer. The  vines  in  their  season  are  loaded  with  grapes ; 
melons  and  pumpkins  strew  the  ground,  and  nearly  all 
the  common  vegetables  are  raised  in  large  quantities. 
Peach,  apricot,  nectarine,  and  plum  trees  are  abun- 
dant, and  apples  and  figs  are  also  grown.  But  gar- 
dening is  rendered  somewhat  difficult  by  the  immense 
swarms  of  ants  and  locusts,  which  destroy  flowers  and 
fruits  alike. 

A  market  gardener  in  Buenos  Aires,  writing  on  this 
subject,  tells  us  that  "  a  common  way  of  destroying  the 
ants  is  by  means  of  a  small  metal  cylindrical  furnace, 
half  filled  with  any  kind  of  dry,  inflammable  rubbish, 
and  in  the  top  a  pan  suspended  containing  sulphur. 
When  lighted  a  lid  is  screwed  down  over  this,  so  that 
the  smoke  can  only  issue  from  a  bent  metal  tube,  which 
conducts  it  to  the  ant  hole.  A  pair  of  bellows,  worked 
by  a  handle,  is  attached  to  the  lower  part  of  the  furnace, 
thus  making  the  fire  burn  and  forcing  the  sulphurous 
smoke  along  the  ant  passages.  The  whole  apparatus  is 
suspended  on.  wheels,  and  can  be  conveniently  moved 
from  part  to  part  of  the  quinta  [garden].  With  this 
instrument  such  volumes  of  suffocating  smoke  can  soon 
be  produced  that  it  will  often  be  issuing  thickly  from 
holes  two  or  three  hundred  yards  distant.  So  you  may 
imagine  the  ants  have  a  somewhat  lively  time  of  it  — 
or,  perhaps,  rather  a  deadly  one. 

"In  spite,  however,  of  waging  war  against  them, 
they  multiply  so  rapidly  that  it  is  only  where  the  gar- 
deners fight  them  very  energetically  that  they  can  be 


254 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


kept  down ;  and  the  amount  of  damage  they  do  is  often 
appalling." 

Despite  the   mosquitoes  and  various  other  trouble- 
some insects,  the  evening  forms  the  pleasantest  part  of 


COMING    FROM    MARKET. 


the  twenty-four  hours.  The  air  is  cool  and  refreshing 
after  the  broiling  heat  of  the  day.  After  dinner,  seats 
are  taken  out  and  placed  where  the  gentle,  intermittent 
breeze  can  be  most  felt.  The  buzz  of  insect  life  fills 


THE   ARGENTINE   PROVINCES.  255 

the  air  with  music,  and  some  of  the  birds  continue  to 
sing  until  evening  darkens  into  night. 

The  writer  quoted  at  the  opening  of  this  chapter 
says :  "  Fireflies  of  extraordinary  brilliance  fill  the  air 
like  shooting  stars,  or  crawl  through  the  grass  beetle- 
like,  with  the  lantern  beneath  their  tail  illumining 
their  way,  and  making  their  insect  prey  visible.  So 
bright  is  their  light  that  by  holding  the  face  of  a  watch 
near  to  one  caught  in  a  spider's  web,  the  time  can  easily 
be  seen  on  the  darkest  night.  Argentine  girls,  when 
they  have  a  dance,  catch  fireflies  and  place  them  under 
their  lace  head-dress,  where  the  insects  look  like  the 
small  incandescent  lamps  worn  by  dancers  in  the 
theaters." 

Social  visiting  is  very  much  enjoyed  by  the  Argen- 
tines. Even  in  the  country  regions  life  is  by  no  means 
so  dull  and  uninteresting  as  many  of  our  northern 
people  have  supposed;  and  in  the  cities,  social  gaye- 
ties  are  carried  to  a  point  to  which  we  are  entire 
strangers. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 
THE   ARGENTINE   PROVINCES. 

THE  province  of  Buenos  Aires  usually  monopolizes 
the  attention  of  visitors  to  Argentina,  on  account  of 
its  possession  of  the  only  maritime  port  in  the  country, 
and  the  predominating  influence  which  this  advantage 
has  secured  to  it  in  peace  as  well  as  in  war.  The 
province  contains  an  area  of  63,000  square  miles,  and 


256  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

is,  consequently,  but  little  larger  than  the  state  of  New 
York.  Its  population  is  set  down  at  1,500,000. 

Throughout  the  province  the  soil  is  richly  alluvial  to 
a  depth  of  two  feet  or  more.  Beneath  this  lies  a  stra- 
tum of  clay,  differing  in  kind  and  quality  according 
to  its  location.  Strata  of  white,  yellow,  and  red  clays 
have  been  discovered  in  different  regions  of  the  same 
province,  furnishing  the  population  with  abundant 
material  for  the  manufacture  of  tiles,  bricks,  and  innu- 
merable articles  of  pottery.  With  the  exception  of  a 
few  hills  in  the  southern  part,  the  province  of  Buenos 
Aires  presents  the  aspect  of  a  plain  with  many  small 
lakes,  and  is  crossed  and  recrossed  by  streams  that  con- 
stitute a  natural  system  of  irrigation. 

The  majestic  river  entrance  to  the  three  republics  of 
the  south  is  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  with  its  confluent,  the 
Parana.  For  the  first  two  hundred  miles  of  its  course 
the  Parana  is  a  labyrinth  of  islands  and  channels. 
These  are  so  numerous  that  even  the  old  pilots  say 
they  are  often  perplexed  by  the  multiplicity  of  ways 
open  to  them.  The  islands  are  covered  with  fruit 
trees,  from  which  the  markets  of  Buenos  Aires  and 
Montevideo  are  supplied;  and  these  trees  overhang  the 
water  so  that,  in  some  places,  a  boat  may  be  loaded 
without  its  occupants  stepping  on  shore.  The  forests 
are  gay  with  flowers  in  bloom,  the  air  is  filled  with 
fragrance,  little  pools  and  nooks  in  the  islands  are 
covered  with  aquatic  plants,  and  the  luxuriance  of 
vegetation  is  amazing. 

Several  streams  unite  to  form  the  Parana.  The 
river  rises  in  the  mountains  back  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
and  its  head  springs  are  not  more  than  one  hundred 


THE   ARGENTINE   PROVINCES. 


257 


miles  from  that  city.  Where  it  leaves  the  mountain 
region  it  has  a  fall  which  is  said,  by  many  travelers,  to 
be  inferior  to  no  other  in  the  world.  Here  is  the  way 
it  is  described:  — 

"  After  collecting  the  waters  of  several  rivers  on  both 
banks,  the  Parana  increases  in  width  until  it  attains 
nearly  4500  yards,  a  short  distance  above  the  falls ;  then 
the  immense  mass  of  water  is  suddenly  confined  within 


THE   ROCKING  STONE,  A   NATURAL  WONDER   OF  ARGENTINA. 

a  gorge  of  200  feet,  through  which  it  dashes  with  fury 
to  the  ledge,  whence  it  is  precipitated  to  a  depth  of 
56  feet.  It  is  computed  that  the  volume  of  water  per 
minute  is  equal  to  1,000,000  tons;  the  velocity  of  the 
flood  through  the  gorge  is  40  miles  an  hour;  and  the 
roar  of  the  cataract  is  distinctly  audible  at  a  distance 
of  30  miles." 

The  province,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  flat  and  uninter- 
esting, and  is  almost  entirely  laid  out  in  great  cattle 
farms,  though  the  soil  is  capable  of  producing  almost 


258  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

all  the  cereals  in  common  use.  Most  of  the  large  farms 
are  owned  by  British  settlers,  and  are  worked  by  Brit- 
ish laborers.  The  natives  almost  live  on  horseback, 
and  do  not  take  kindly  to  any  form  of  work  which 
cannot  be  done  from  the  saddle. 

Large  slaughter-houses  are  also  to  be  found  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  province,  and  immense  quantities  of 
salted  beef,  tallow,  and  hides  are  exported.  The  extent 
of  the  stock  raising  may  best  be  gathered  from  the  fact 
that  recent  returns  give  an  average  of  200  sheep,  20 
cows,  and  6  horses  to  every  inhabitant  of  the  province, 
while  the  yield  of  unwashed  wool  is  set  down  at  an 
average  of  125,000,000  pounds  per  year. 

From  its  advantageous  position  this  province  con- 
trols the  foreign  commercial  relations  of  the  entire 
republic,  and  is,  therefore,  ranked  first  in  importance. 
Its  principal  cities  are  now  connected  with  the  capital 
by  railroads  or  by  the  river,  and  its  future  prospects  are 
excellent. 

The  province  of  Cordoba  is  situated  in  the  heart  of 
the  republic,  and  is  second  in  size  and  population.  Its 
area  is  54,000  square  miles,  and  its  population  is 
400,000. 

The  general  aspect  of  this  province  is  that  of  a  plain, 
slightly  inclined  from  west  to  east.  Its  soil  is  equally 
adapted  to  agricultural,  mining,  and  grazing  indus- 
tries. The  southern  part  of  the  province  is  especially 
given  to  breeding  cattle,  horses,  and  mules;  in  the 
center  and  north  large  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats  are 
raised.  In  the  valleys  of  the  west,  and  along  the 
courses  of  the  different  rivers  and  streams,  excellent 
wheat  and  fruits  are  grown;  and  the  mountainous 


THE   ARGENTINE    PROVINCES.  259 

part  of  the  northwest  is  rich  in  copper,  silver,  and  gold, 
but  especially  in  marble  and  a  very  good  quality  of  lime. 

The  most  northerly  province,  Jujuy,  is  already  con- 
nected with  the  capital  of  the  republic  by  railroad,  and 
is  only  awaiting  the  beneficial  action  of  money  and  immi- 
gration to  develop  into  one  of  the  most  prosperous  divi- 
sions of  the  republic.  The  capital  of  the  province  is 
Jujuy,  a  city  of  about  10,000  inhabitants.  It  has  a 
national  college,  a  normal  school  for  girls,  seven  public 
schools,  two  banks,  a  customhouse,  and  other  institu- 
tions of  importance. 

Jujuy  had  110  mines  at  the  close  of  the  year  1897, 
of  which  70  were  of  gold,  30  of  silver,  5  of  copper,  1  of 
mercury,  and  4  of  silver  and  copper  mixed.  Salt, 
asphalt,  and  petroleum  are  also  found  in  great  quan- 
tities. The  gold-producing  sands  are  so  rich  in  fine 
metals  and  precious  stones  that  an  offer  of  a  premium 
of  six  dollars  per  ton  has  recently  been  made  to  the 
government  for  the  privilege  of  washing  the  sand  and 
securing  its  valuable  contents. 

The  province  of  Salta  is  situated  to  the  south  of 
Jujuy,  and  has  an  area  of  45,000  square  miles  and 
200,000  inhabitants.  Like  Jujuy,  it  is  mountainous 
in  some  parts,  and  has  also  some  very  fertile  regions  in 
which  the  pastoral  and  agricultural  industries  flourish. 
Great,  too,  are  the  mineral  resources  of  Salta.  Gold, 
silver,  and  copper  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the 
province;  also  salt,  sulphate  of  lime,  kaolin,  coal, 
asphalt,  and  petroleum.  But  the  mining  industry  is 
not  very  largely  carried  on ;  the  people  prefer  to  devote 
themselves  to  raising  cattle  and  sheep,  and  to  cultivat- 
ing the  products  of  the  soil,  such  as  wheat,  maize,  rice, 


260  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

tobacco,  and  sugar  cane.  The  cultivation  of  sugar  cane  is 
the  most  important  and  extensive  agricultural  industry. 

South  of  Salta  is  to  be  found  the  most  picturesque 
province  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  the  most  densely 
populated,  and  one  of  the  richest.  It  is  the  small 
province  of  Tucuma,  with  an  area  of  only  13,000  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  150,000.  It  is  called  the 
"  Garden  of  the  Republic,"  on  account  of  its  beautiful 
scenery.  It  exports  to  the  other  provinces  large  quan- 
tities of  timber,  leather,  cheese,  oranges,  and  lemons. 

The  city  of  Tucuma  is  the  seat  of  government  for  the 
province  and  has  over  40,000  inhabitants.  It  has  one 
national  college,  a  normal  school  for  young  men,  and 
thirty  elementary  schools,  two  banks,  two  hospitals,  a 
theater,  several  public  libraries,  and  several  hotels. 
This  city  is,  in  one  respect,  the  Philadelphia  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  the  declaration  of  independence 
having  been  made  in  that  city  on  the  9th  of  July,  1816. 
The  house  in  which  the  Congress  convened  is  kept  in 
perfect  order,  and  no  alterations  have  been  made  in  the 
hall  where  the  declaration  was  signed. 

The  province  of  Santiago  del  Estero,  situated  to  the 
south  of  Salta,  is  more  than  double  the  size  of  Tucuma, 
its  area  being  31,500  square  miles,  and  its  population 
only  250,000.  With  the  exception  of  one  hill,  which 
is  about  a  thousand  feet  in  height,  the  whole  province 
is  a  vast  plain,  sloping  slightly  from  west  to  east. 
One  of  the  principal  industries  is  the  sawing  of  its 
magnificent  woods.  Over  eighty  per  cent  of  the  area 
of  the  province  is  covered  with  rich  forests,  and  more 
than  two  hundred  steam  sawmills  are  engaged  in 
making  lumber. 


262  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

The  province  of  Catamarca,  which  lies  to  the  east  of 
Chile,  has  a  small  population  compared  with  some  of 
the  neighboring  provinces.  Among  its  resources  the 
gold,  silver,  and  copper  mines  deserve  special  mention. 
Salt,  coal,  malachite,  kaolin,  sulphate  of  lime,  alum, 
and  other  valuable  mineral  products  are  abundant. 

Very  similar  to  Catamarca,  both  in  general  features 
and  in  products,  is  the  province  of  La  Rioja,  which  is 
situated  to  the  south  and  west  of  Catamarca.  Its  area 
is  31,500  square  miles,  and  its  population  numbers  over 
100,000.  It  is  rich  in  coal,  and  many  cattle  are  fattened 
here  and  exported  to  Chile. 

The  province  of  Entre  Rios  is  said  to  produce  the 
best  wheat  in  the  world.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by 
Uruguay,  on  the  south  by  Buenos  Aires,  and  on  the 
west  by  Santa  Fe",  which  it  resembles  in  many  respects. 
Its  area  is  45,000  square  miles  and  its  population 
300,000.  In  1898  there  were  in  Entre  Rios  4,100,000 
cattle,  4,900,000  sheep,  and  720,000  horses.  In  the 
same  year  about  400,000  cattle  were  slaughtered  in  the 
nineteen  cattle-dressing  establishments  of  the  province. 

The  capital  city  of  Parana,  which  was  the  capital  of 
the  republic  from  1852  to  1861,  has  a  population  of 
20,000.  This  city  is  well  built,  and  has  one  national 
college,  a  normal  school,  and  a  number  of  elementary 
schools.  All  ships  that  ply  on  the  Parana  River  stop 
here. 

In  the  northeast  part  of  the  republic  is  the  province 
of  Corrientes,  with  an  area  of  54,000  square  miles  and 
a  population  of  300,000.  Corrientes  abounds  in  lakes 
and  streams  that  make  its  soil  especially  adapted  to 
agricultural  and  grazing  purposes.  Among  other  prod- 


THE   ARGENTINE   PROVINCES.  263 

ucts,  sugar  cane,  cotton,  tobacco,  wheat,  and  maize  are 
extensively  cultivated.  The  province  is  also  rich  in 
hard  woods,  of  which  it  has  immense  forests. 

The  city  of  Corrientes,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Parana  River,  and  is  a  port  of  consider- 
able activity.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  city  are  sev- 


EN    ROUTE  OVER  THE  ANDES. 


eral  private  shipyards,  where  sailing  ships  are  built  of 
wood  brought  from  El  Chaco.  These  ships  last  many 
years  on  account  of  the  great  resistance  of  the  wood 
employed  in  their  construction. 

The  province  of  San  Juan  lies  next  to  Chile  and 
south  of  La  Rioja.  It  is  rich  in  mineral  resources, 
which  have  not  yet  been  worked  to  the  extent  that  they 


264  THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

deserve.  The  principal  industry  is  agriculture.  Wheat 
and  maize  are  raised,  but  the  most  profitable  product  is 
lucerne,  a  fodder  plant  necessary  to  fatten  the  great 
number  of  cattle  exported  to  Chile.  The  cultivation 
of  grapes  is  also  a  remunerative  industry,  the  wines  of 
San  Juan  being  sold  throughout  the  republic. 

The  long  and  narrow  province  of  San  Luis  is  moun- 
tainous in  its  northern  part,  but  level  in  the  south. 
Mining  is  its  principal  industry,  the  province  being  very 
rich  in  both  metals  and  minerals.  Wheat,  maize,  bar- 
ley, potatoes,  lucerne,  and  grapes  are  raised,  but  only 
for  home  consumption. 

The  prosperous  province  of  Santa  Fe*  is  situated  east 
of  Cordoba  and  north  of  Buenos  Aires.  Its  area  is 
18,000  square  miles,  and  out  of  a  population  of  300,000 
at  least  100,000  are  foreigners.  Santa  Fe's  soil  is  es- 
pecially adapted  for  agricultural  and  grazing  purposes. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  land  is  used  for  the  culti- 
vation of  wheat  and  maize;  and  lucerne,  limes,  and 
peanuts  come  next  in  amount  of  production. 

The  capital  of  the  province  is  the  city  of  Santa  Fe, 
situated  on  the  banks  of  a  river  of  the  same  name, 
which  is  a  branch  of  the  Parana;  but  the  principal  city 
of  the  province  is  the  port  of  Rosario,  on  the  Parana 
River.  Rosario  now  has  a  population  of  over  1  Op, 000. 
Being  in  river  and  railroad  communication  with  all 
parts  of  the  republic,  it  controls  most  of  the  export  and 
import  trade  of  the  provinces  situated  to  the  north  of 
Buenos  Aires.  It  is  easily  reached  by  all  sea-going 
ships,  as  the  Parana  River  is  navigable  for  them. 
Rosario  has  all  the  modern  improvements,  and  is  a 
prosperous  city. 


THE   LEADING    INDUSTRIES.  265 

The  province  of  Mendoza  is  mountainous  only  in  its 
western  part,  being  level  in  the  middle  and  east,  where 
the  soil  is  very  rich.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  cereal 
crops,  peaches  and  grapes  are  extensively  cultivated. 
The  wines  of  Mendoza,  its  olives,  dried  grapes,  and 
dried  figs,  are  sold  throughout  the  republic. 

The  city  of  Mendoza,  the  seat  of  the  provincial  gov- 
ernment, has  now  about  25,000  inhabitants.  It  was 
almost  completely  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1861, 
and  over  10,000  persons  perished  under  the  ruins.  This 
happened  during  Holy  Week,  and  a  great  part  of  the 
inhabitants  were  at  mass  when  the  earthquake  came. 
The  ruins  of  the  old  city  are  yet  visible,  as  new  ground 
was  taken  for  rebuilding  the  city. 

Mendoza  has  several  tramway  lines;  its  streets  are 
wide  and  well  paved;  it  has  some  very  pretty  parks; 
and  the  city  presents,  in  general,  a  most  pleasant  aspect. 
It  has  a  national  college,  two  normal  schools,  an  agri- 
cultural school,  and  twenty  public  schools.  It  can  be 
reached  by  railroad  from  Buenos  Aires  in  about  thirty 
hours. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

THE    LEADING   INDUSTRIES. 

No  other  country  in  the  world,  perhaps,  has  witnessed 
within  the  past  twenty-five  years  such  remarkable  in- 
dustrial changes  as  the  Argentine  Republic,  which  is 
beginning  to  be  spoken  of  as  "  the  Yankee-land "  of 
South  America. 


266 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


A  Handbook  recently  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  South 
American  Republics,  in  Washington,  D.C.,  says:  "It 
is  only  necessary  to  look  at  the  statistics  of  international 
commerce  to  obtain  the  proof  of  this  remarkable  trans- 
formation. The  exports  of  1875  were  limited  to  hides, 
wool,  grease,  jerked  beef,  and  other  minor  products  of 


DRYING    HIDES. 


the  pastoral  industry;  while  the  imports  comprised  even 
the  most  rudimentary  articles  belonging  to  the  manu- 
facturing industries,  plainly  showing  the  incapacity  of 
this  country  to  produce,  at  that  time,  anything  beyond 
the  products  of  the  soil. 

"Recent  statistics   show  a   very  different   state   of 
affairs.     In  the  column  of  exports  appear  a  great  many 


THE    LEADING    INDUSTRIES.  267 

articles  which  before  were  in  the  column  of  imports; 
while  from  the  latter  have  disappeared  a  great  many 
articles  which  before  figured  conspicuously  in  it.  All 
this  shows  the  progress  made  by  the  country  in  the 
short  space  above  cited.  Of  the  importance  of  the  prod- 
ucts, their  class,  quality,  and  variety,  the  reader  can 
form  an  idea  by  studying  with  care  the  long  list  of 
products  now  manufactured  in  this  country.  It  will 
be  seen  that  nearly  all  the  important  branches  of  human 
activity  are  represented  in  this  new  period  of  industrial 
progress." 

We  summarize  the  further  statements  of  the  Hand- 
book as  follows:  Within  the  limits  of  the  city  of 
Buenos  Aires  alone  there  are  986  establishments  for 
the  working  of  metals;  1210  for  preparing  hides;  1178 
for  timber;  748  for  cereals;  1657  spinning  establish- 
ments; 289  establishments  for  the  manufacture  of  arti- 
cles of  glass  and  wax;  51  for  the  manufacture  of 
chemical  products ;  26  for  manufacturing  grocery  prod- 
ucts; 168  distilleries;  268  cigar  and  cigarette  manu- 
factories; and  1044  other  kinds  of  manufactories, — 
making  in  all  a  total  of  7619  industrial  establishments. 

There  are  also,  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  a 
number  of  factories  for  the  making  of  chocolate,  and 
these  are  furnished  with  first-class  machinery,  and  are 
capable  of  producing  over  2,000,000  pounds  per  year. 
The  chocolate  made  is  of  such  excellent  quality  that 
it  has  almost  stopped  the  importation  of  the  European 
article. 

The  city  of  Buenos  Aires  has  811  establishments 
devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  furniture  of  all  kinds; 
and  the  importations  of  furniture  have,  in  consequence, 


268  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

almost  ceased.  Over  50,000  men  are  employed  in  the 
country  in  the  profitable  industry  of  wood-working. 

It  is  calculated  that  the  number  of  persons  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  throughout  the 
country  amounts  to  25,000,  and  that  the  value  of  the 
annual  production  of  these  articles  reaches  the  figure 
of  150,000,000  paper  money.  Almost  every  known  arti- 
cle of  leather  and  skin  is  manufactured,  the  importation 
of  such  articles  being  very  small. 

The  yearly  production  of  tobacco  is  calculated  to  be 
26,400,000  pounds  at  present;  but,  as  the  industry  is 
assuming  greater  proportions  every  day,  this  production 
may  be  doubled  in  a  very  short  time. 

Within  the  last  few  years  several  mills  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cloths  and  underwear  have  been  established, 
with  profit  to  the  owners.  The  annual  importation  of 
dry  goods  amounts  to  140,000,000  in  value,  so  that 
capital  employed  in  the  textile  industry  is  sure  to  obtain 
abundant  return.  There  are,  in  the  city  of  Buenos 
Aires,  eighty-one  establishments  where  shirts  are  made, 
the  importation  of  ready-made  clothing  into  the  coun- 
try having  practically  ceased.  Seventeen  factories  are 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  hats,  and  this  branch 
of  business  also  promises  to  be  a  success. 

The  greatest  of  all  industries  is  the  raising  of  cat- 
tle and  sheep.  In  round  numbers  there  are  about 
100,000,000  sheep  and  30,000,000  cattle  in  the  Argen- 
tine. Near  the  cities  many  large  farms  are  occupied 
by  the  dairymen,  who  provide  the  city  with  milk  and 
butter.  They  have  some  very  fine  breeds  of  cattle, 
which  they  milk  at  all  times  of  the  day.  The  cattle 
wander  over  a  large  area  of  grazing  ground,  and  remain 


THE    LEADING    INDUSTRIES. 


269 


in  the  open  air  day  and  night,  summer  and  winter. 
It  is  nothing  uncommon  for  one  of  these  large  dairy 
establishments  to  have  from  4000  to  5000  cows. 

Farming  is  also  steadily  increasing.     The  cultivation 
of  the  soil  is  of  recent  growth  in  the  Argentine.     Before 


BRANDING    CATTLE. 


the  war  with  Paraguay,  the  people  imported  nearly  all 
their  flour  from  Chile;  hut  during  this  war  the  Argen- 
tine farmers  found  a  good  market  for  their  products; 
and  when  the  war  was  over  it  was  discovered  that  the 
supply  of  grain  was  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  demand  of 
the  whole  region  of  the  Rio  Plata.  After  a  while  the 
country  began  to  export  grain,  and  now  wheat  is  one  of 
the  chief  articles  of  export  to  the  European  market. 


270  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Regarding  the  conditions  of  life  of  farmers  in  the 
Argentine  Republic  as  compared  with  those  of  Europe, 
and  the  methods  employed  in  their  work,  Monsieur 
Daireaux  says:  — 

"  His  house  is  in  the  midst  of  his  land,  and  he  grows 
but  one  class  of  grain  on  his  farm  of  125  or  250  acres. 
While  one  farmer  grows  wheat,  another  grows  maize, 
another  barley,  and  another  flax,  etc.  In  a  word,  the 
farmer  works  like  a  business  man,  seeking  to  make  his 
business  pay.  In  this  manner  he  obtains  better  results 
than  the  French  farmer,  and  is  able,  besides,  to  devote 
more  of  his  time  to  rest  and  study. 

"  In  autumn  the  Argentine  farmer  prepares  his  land. 
The  rich  nature  of  the  soil  makes  this  operation  an  easy 
one,  being  reduced  to  a  few  turns  of  the  plow  to  pre- 
pare it;  a  difficult  and  costly  operation  not  being  at  all 
necessary.  Two  months  suffice  to  do  this  and  to  sow 
the  seed.  He  spends  the  winter  in  those  mild  regions, 
where  it  never  snows,  in  looking  after  his  garden,  pot 
herbs,  and  his  oxen  and  horses.  In  the  spring  nature 
works  for  him. 

"At  last  summer  arrives,  or  at  least  is  near,  because 
in  the  month  of  November,  which  corresponds  to  the 
month  of  May  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  wheat 
commences  to  get  yellow,  and  it  is  time  to  prepare  the 
reaping  machines.  It  might  be  said  that  the  murmur 
of  the  ripe  ears  of  corn  and  wheat  calls  the  farmer  from 
his  tranquil  life.  So  it  happened  in  times  gone  by, 
when  the  farmer  had  to  reap  with  his  own  hands,  and 
was  forced  to  lose  most  of  the  harvest  for  lack  of  laborers. 
To-day  things  have  changed.  The  farmer  who  finds  it 
impossible  to  buy  the  machine  or  machines  he  requires, 


THE    LEADING    INDUSTRIES.  271 

makes  an  agreement  with  one  of  the  many  contractors 
of  the  district,  who,  in  a  week,  reaps  the  harvest, 
thrashes  it,  and  leaves  it  ready  to  be  exported,  some- 
times even  buys  it  himself ;  so  that  the  farmer  has  only  to 
exchange  his  crop  for  a  check,  and  the  business  is  done." 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  yerba,  some- 
times called  yerba  mate,  from  which  the  Paraguay  tea 
is  made.  It  is  to  South  America  what  the  tea  of  China 
is  to  Europe  and  the  United  States;  and  its  qualities 
are  not  very  different  from  those  of  the  Asiatic  herb. 

The  yerba  trees  grow  in  forests,  called  yerbales,  bor- 
dering on  the  rivers  of  Paraguay,  and  attain  a  con- 
siderable size.  At  the  time  of  gathering,  a  party  of 


THE   MATE  AND  THE    BOMBILLA. 


laborers  is  sent  into  the  forests  to  collect  the  branches, 
sprigs,  and  leaves.  After  being  thoroughly  scorched, 
the  leaves  and  twigs  are  packed  in  a  rawhide,  which  con- 
tracts as  it  dries,  compressing  the  yerba  into  an  almost 
solid  mass.  In  this  condition  it  is  sent  to  market. 

"  The  mate  is  a  small  gourd  which  forms  the  general 
drinking  cup  in  all  these  regions.  An  infusion  of  the 
yerba  having  been  made,  with  accessories  of  milk  and 
sugar,  as  in  our  own  country,  it  is  sucked  from  the 
mate  through  a  tin  or  silver  tube,  called  the  bombilla, 


272  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

which  is  provided  at  its  lower  extremity  with  a  strainer, 
which  prevents  the  fine  particles  of  the  yerba  from  ris- 
ing to  the  mouth.  The  name  of  the  gourd,  or  cup,  is 
quite  frequently  coupled  with  that  of  the  tea  in  men- 
tioning the  article." 

The  industries  of  this  interesting  country  are  steadily 
on  the  increase,  and  the  prospects  for  the  industrial 
future  of  the  republic  grow  brighter  day  by  day. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 
HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF  PARAGUAY. 

IN  a  recent  report  made  to  our  government  in  Wash- 
ington, Consul  Hill  aptly  says :  "  In  order  to  appreciate 
properly  the  present  condition  of  Paraguay,  the  char- 
acter of  its  institutions,  and  its  future  prospects,  a 
cursory  glance  at  its  past  is  absolutely  necessary.  No 
nation  has  so  barely  escaped  utter  extinction  through 
the  adverse  fortunes  of  war,  as  has  this  interesting 
republic;  and  yet,  to-day,  scarcely  a  score  of  years 
since  the  close  of  the  late  disastrous  war,  the  country 
is  on  a  firmer  basis  than  ever  before,  and  can  look  to 
the  future  with  complacency  and  some  degree  of  con- 
fidence." 

Following  the  excellent  suggestion  of  this  report,  we 
first  glance  at  the  far-away  past;  and  as  we  do  so,  we 
soon  discover  that  scarcely  anything  is  known  of  the 
primitive  inhabitants  of  Paraguay.  Sebastian  Cabot 
was  the  first  white  man  to  navigate  the  Parana  and  the 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF   PARAGUAY.  273 

Paraguay  rivers,  and  in  1526  he  sailed  by  the  site  of 
the  present  city  of  Asuncion.  The  first  settlement  in 
Paraguay  was  made  ten  years  later  by  a  company  of 
three  hundred  Spanish  colonists,  under  the  command  of 
Juan  de  Ayolas.  They  established  a  fort  on  what  was 
supposed  to  be  a  route  to  the  gold  fields  and  silver  rivers 
of  Peru  ;  and  this  fort,  in  the  course  of  time,  became  the 
city  which  is  now  the  capital  of  the  republic.  It  was 
given  the  name  of  Asuncion  because  the  work  of  its 
construction  was  begun  on  the  15th  of  August,  a  day 
set  apart  by  the  Church  for  the  commemoration  of  "  the 
Assumption  of  the  Blessed  Mother  of  our  Lord." 

Spanish  governors  were  appointed  from  Spain  until 
1591,  when  Hernando  de  Saavedra  was  made  governor 
of  the  colony, —  the  first  native  of  the  country  ever 
intrusted  by  Spain  with  supreme  authority.  He 
believed  that  the  policy  of  extermination,  by  war  or 
otherwise,  which  thus  far  had  been  the  only  one  adopted 
in  regard  to  the  native  races,  could  be  set  aside  and 
abandoned  to  the  great  advantage  of  all  concerned,  and 
replaced  by  a  policy  of  moderation  and  fair  treatment, 
through  religious  influences.  It  was  at  his  suggestion 
that  King  Philip  III.,  in  1608,  intrusted  the  Jesuits 
with  the  duty  of  carrying  out  the  new  policy.  The  first 
Jesuits  arrived  in  Asuncion  in  1609;  and  the  influence 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus  continued  in  Paraguay  until  the 
famous  decree  of  King  Charles  III.,  issued  in  1767, 
expelled  all  members  of  that  order  from  the  dominions 
of  Spain. 

The  invasion  of  Spain  by  the  French,  the  abdication 
of  Charles  IV.  in  favor  of  his  son,  Ferdinand  VIII., 
the  captivity  of  the  latter,  and  the  accession  of  Joseph 


274  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Bonaparte  to  the  throne  of  Spain  loosened  the  grip  of 
Spain  on  her  colonies  and  so  helped  to  pave  the  way 
to  independence  in  Paraguay  as  in  the  rest  of  Spanish 
America. 

An  assembly  of  Paraguayan  deputies,  which  inaugu- 
rated its  sessions  on  the  llth  of  June,  1811,  passed 
a  resolution  by  which  all  allegiance  to  Spain  was 
renounced.  A  subsequent  Congress,  in  1813,  ratified 
this  declaration  of  independence;  resolved  that  Para- 
guay should  thereafter  be  a  republic;  devised  and 
adopted  a  national  flag ;  and  vested  the  government  in 
two  consuls,  to  be  elected  annually. 

The  first  consuls,  elected  in  1813,  were  Francia  and 
Yegros.  Difficulties  having  arisen  between  these  two 
officials,  a  new  Congress  decided  the  next  year  to  make 
Dr.  Francia  dictator  for  three  years.  After  the  expira- 
tion of  this  term  another  Congress,  in  1817,  proclaimed 
that  Dr.  Francia's  dictatorship  was  perpetual.  He 
governed  the  country  until  his  death,  twenty-three 
years  later. 

A  provisional  government  was  then  created  at  Asun- 
cion, consisting  of  four  military  officers  of  high  rank 
under  the  presidency  of  the  mayor  of  Asuncion.  Shortly 
afterward  this  board,  or  junta,  as  it  was  called,  was 
superseded  by  a  triumvirate,  which,  in  turn,  was  abol- 
ished by  order  of  Congress  two  months  later,  and 
replaced  by  the  old  consulate.  The  consuls  chosen 
were  Don  Carlos  Lopez  and  Don  Mariano  Alonzo,  the 
latter  a  soldier  of  high  rank  who  had  commanded  the 
national  army. 

In  1844,  at  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  office  of  the 
two  consuls,  the  form  of  government  was  again  changed 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF    PARAGUAY. 


275 


THE    NATIONAL    PALACE   AT  ASUNCION. 


by  Congress.  The  executive  authority  was  vested  in 
a  chief  magistrate,  under  the  title  of  President  of  the 
republic,  who  was  to  serve  for  ten  years.  Lopez,  who 
was  elected  to  this  position,  completed  his  term  of 
office  in  1854,  and  then  he  was  reflected,  first  for  three 
years,  and  in  1857  for  ten  more.  He  died,  however, 
on  the  10th  of  September,  1862,  and  the  government 
fell  into  the  hands  of  his  son. 

The  ambition  of  the  younger  Lopez  plunged  the 
country  into  war  with  Brazil.  The  Argentine  govern- 
ment refused  to  allow  the  transportation  of  troops 
through  her  territory,  so  the  Paraguayan  Congress 
issued  a  declaration  of  war  against  that  country.  This 
brought  about  an  alliance  between  Brazil,  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  and  Uruguay,  by  whose  united  action 
Paraguay  was  almost  annihilated. 

Lopez  died  on  the  field  of  battle  on  the  1st  of  March, 
1870.  A  committee  of  prominent  citizens  undertook 
the  reorganization  of  the  country;  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  government  was  temporarily  intrusted  to 


276  THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

a  triumvirate.  The  three  men  thus  elected  worked 
faithfully  and  fulfilled  their  delicate  mission  to  the 
satisfaction  of  all.  The  difficulties  of  their  work  were 
rendered  graver  by  the  fact  that  the  enemy  had  riot  yet 
evacuated  the  Paraguayan  territory;  but  arbitration  by 
the  United  States  resulted  in  favor  of  Paragua}'. 

The  old  electoral  districts  were  reestablished,  as  far 
as  practicable ;  and  a  constitutional  convention  of  sixty 
members,  elected  by  the  people,  was  called  together. 
This  convention  met  in  August,  1870,  and  the  consti- 
tution which  was  framed  and  proclaimed  on  the  24th  of 
November  following  is  still  in  force.  There  have  been 
ten  presidents  since  the  present  order  was  established; 
the  government  now  (1901)  being  in  the  hands  of  Presi- 
dent Emilio  Aceval.  Although  some  unsettled  bound- 
ary disputes  may  possibly  lead  to  further  trouble,  the 
country  is  flourishing  under  his  administration,  and 
bids  fair  to  take  its  old  place  among  its  sister  republics. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

THE   LAND   OF  PLENTY. 

PARAGUAY  is  an  inland  state,  entirely  shut  in  by 
Brazil,  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  Bolivia;  it  is 
reached  by  water  through  the  La  Plata,  the  Uruguay, 
and  Parana  rivers.  The  Paraguay  River  runs  from 
north  to  south  across  the  whole  republic,  dividing  it 
into  two  sections,  which  may  be  called  eastern  Paraguay 
and  western  Paraguay.  Eastern  Paraguay  embraces 


THE   LAND   OF   PLENTY.  277 

all  the  vitality  in  the  republic;  the  western  section  is 
only  beginning  to  be  developed. 

The  climate  of  Paraguay  is  warm  and  dry.  There 
are  two  seasons,  usually  called  summer  and  winter, 
though  the  winter  is  so  mild  that  there  is  scarcely  a  day 
in  which  the  sun  is  not  warm  enough  to  cause  people 
to  seek  the  shade. 

The  general  appearance  of  Paraguay  is  far  more 
attractive  than  either  Uruguay  or  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic. The  left  bank  of  the  river  Paraguay  presents 
an  uninterrupted  fringe  of  dense  forests,  which  stretch 
across  to  the  eastern  boundaries  of  the  country,  and 
embrace  a  hundred  different  varieties  of  timber  trees. 
On  the  opposite  shore  are  open  meadows  of  immeasurable 
extent,  widening  out  into  immense  groves  of  palm  and 
cocoa  trees.  In  the  extreme  southern  limits  low  prairies, 
covered  with  a  rank  vegetation,  alternate  with  swamps 
which  extend  northward  for  a  considerable  distance. 

Western  Paraguay,  or  El  Chaco,  as  it  is  generally 
called,  was  for  many  years  almost  entirely  in  the  pos- 
session of  wandering  tribes  of  Indians,  who  were  hos- 
tile to  the  white  men.  They  preferred  to  keep  their 
forests,  which  are  full  of  wild  game,  to  themselves. 
Until  within  a  few  years  this  immense  territory  has 
been  considered  worthless;  but  recent  surveys  have 
shown  that  the  soil  is  very  fertile.  The  trees  of  the 
forest  are  mostly  evergreens,  and  much  of  the  wood  is 
hard  and  heavy,  so  heavy  that  it  will  not  float.  Here 
and  there  are  rich  pasture  lands  and  open  places  where 
all  kinds  of  grain,  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  and  fruits  can 
be  grown ;  but  at  the  present  time  comparatively  little 
land  is  under  cultivation. 


278  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

With  reference  to  western  Paraguay,  Mr.  John  E. 
Bacon,  an  official  of  the  United  States  in  Paraguay 
and  Uruguay,  recently  reported  to  the  Secretary  of 
State  of  the  United  States  as  follows :  — 

"This  Chaco,  or  Gran  Chaco,  as  it  is  called,  is  an 
immense  territory  lying  to  the  west  and  northwest  of 
the  rivers  La  Plata,  Paraguay,  etc.,  and  has  been,  until 
the  last  ten  or  twenty  years,  regarded  as  comparatively 
worthless,  owing  to  its  supposed  impenetrable  swamps, 
dense  morasses,  and  uninhabitable  territory.  The  recent 
tide  of  immigration,  however,  to  the  Plata  valley  gave 
rise  to  surveys  of  portions  thereof,  and  disclosed  astound- 
ing developments  of  its  fertility,  salubrity,  and  other 
desirable  qualities.  These  qualities,  as  gradually 
developed,  have  given  rise  to  great  contentions  as  to 
proprietorship  thereof  by  the  neighboring  states,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  Uruguay, 
and  Bolivia.  The  limits,  so  far  as  the  Argentine  and 
Paraguay  were  concerned,  were  left  to  arbitration  by 
President  Hayes,  who  decided  in  favor  of  Paraguay. 
This  decision  has  been  of  far  greater  importance  in 
every  way,  especially  financially,  than  was  anticipated. 
Indeed,  there  has  poured  into  the  Paraguay  treasury, 
from  the  sale  of  lands  accorded  to  the  government  by 
said  arbitration,  a  large  amount  of  money;  and  it  has 
been  greatly  instrumental  in  the  rapid  improvement, 
financial  and  otherwise,  of  the  republic." 

An  Englishman,  who  had  been  cattle  farming  at 
San  Ignacio  for  three  years,  recently  said  that  since  he 
had  been  there  he  had  never  got  a  stroke  of  work  out 
of  the  natives  dwelling  on  this  land.  They  live  on 
oranges,  mandioca,  and  mate,  and  will  not  work.  On 


THE    IMPENETRABLE   TROPICAL    FOREST. 


280  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

his  extensive  farm  he  has  twenty  thousand  orange 
trees;  but,  for  want  of  means  of  transportation,  the 
fruit  has  no  market  value.  Under  the  trees  the  oranges 
lie  on  the  ground  a  foot  deep,  and  the  cattle  eat  them 
and  fatten.  He  suggested  that  it  might  be  a  good 
thing  for  Paragflay  if  the  government  caused  the  orange 
trees  to  be  cut  down  —  as  the  government  of  Costa 
Rica  at  one  time  had  the  bananas  destroyed  —  with  a 
view  to  stamping  out  the  universal  laziness  and  oblig- 
ing the  people  to  work  for  their  bread. 

Eastern  Paraguay,  or  Paraguay  proper,  is  by  no 
means  a  mountainous  country,  but  in  contrast  with  the 
monotonously  level  pampas  of  the  Argentine  Republic 
its  diversified  surface  may  well  seem  so.  From  the 
banks  of  the  Paraguay  River  to  the  eastern  frontier 
stretches  one  continuous  panorama  of  gently  undulating 
plains,  bordered  by  verdure-clad  hills.  The  interior  of 
the  country  is  not  yet  well  known.  Its  vast  virgin 
forests  interpose  barriers  which  have  driven  back  the 
hardiest  explorers. 

There  are  few  routes  of  communication  by  land  out- 
side of  the  valley  which  extends  from  Asuncion  to 
Encarnacion,  the  terminus  of  present  railroad  proj- 
ects, and  certain  well-frequented  roads  leading  to  the 
rich  agricultural  regions  of  the  country.  Such  geo- 
graphical knowledge  as  we  have  of  Paraguay  is  mainly 
derived  from  following  the  course  of  its  principal 
rivers. 

Asuncion,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Paraguay 
River,  is  the  largest  city  in  the  country,  and  is  the  seat 
of  government.  Its  population  is  about  44,817.  The 
appearance  of  the  city  in  general  is  very  neat  and 


THE    LAND   OF   PLENTY.  281 

pleasing,  and  the  government  has  erected  some  beau- 
tiful buildings.  The  houses  are  generally  one  story 
high,  and  they  are  constructed  so  as  to  be  practically 
fireproof.  The  city  has  a  customhouse,  a  cathedral, 
and  many  fine  churches,  a  hospital,  a  public  library, 
and  a  university.  It  is  noted  for  its  high  degree  of 
civilization  and  refinement,  and  the  country  is  famed 
for  its  hospitality  and  kindness  to  visitors  and  strangers. 

Two  structures  in  Asuncion  which  excite  consider- 
able interest  were  both  started  by  Lopez.  One  of  these, 
the  old  theater,  built  after  the  style  of  the  cele- 
brated La  Scala  at  Milan,  occupies  an  entire  block. 
The  other  is  the  Mausoleum,  an  imitation  of  the  tomb 
of  Napoleon  in  Paris.  The  city  is  not  rich  in  monu- 
ments. Although  it  is  the  oldest  settlement  on  the 
South  American  continent,  it  has  no  relics  of  the  con- 
querors, whose  aim,  it  is  to  be  feared,  was  always  to 
enrich  themselves  rather  than  to  create  a  healthy  and 
noble  civilization. 

Asuncion  is  well  guarded  and  patrolled  by  police,  and 
there  is  very  little  crime  and  lawlessness.  The  city 
is  lighted  by  electric  lights,  and  rapid  transit  by  five 
lines  of  street  cars  is  a  great  convenience;  but  we 
must  also  add  that  in  some  of  the  side  streets  cows 
may  be  seen  grazing.  An  evidence  of  the  poor  con- 
dition of  the  streets  is  found  in  the  fact  that  there 
are  no  public  or  private  carriages;  the  only  vehicles 
used  are  ox-carts  and  lighter  wagons  drawn  by  three  or 
four  mules.  Pack-mules,  donkeys,  and  riding  horses 
are  also  used ;  but  for  light  goods  and  passengers,  the 
great  and  indispensable  conveyance  is  the  tramway, 
which  bears  the  name  of  Conductor  Universal, 


282  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

For  the  visitor  the  chief  interest  of  Asuncion  is  in 
the  street  life,  and  particularly  the  central  market, 
where  may  be  seen  almost  all  types  of  persons  living 
in  the  republic.  A  recent  visitor  has  said :  "  Inside 
the  market,  besides  the  various  stalls  for  the  sale  of 
vegetables,  provisions  of  all  kinds,  and  dry  goods, 
there  are  several  restaurants,  where  smoking  caldrons 
of  stew  are  presided  over  by  active  matrons ;  and  along 
the  alleys,  the  pavement  is  occupied  by  women  of 
all  ages  squatting  in  groups,  mostly  Guarani  Indians, 
interspersed  with  a  few  negresses  and  mulattoes,  all 
looking  sad,  thin,  arid  miserable,  and,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  exceedingly  ugly.  Occasionally,  however, 
you  see  a  Guarani  girl  with  a  serene  face,  fine  eyes, 
well-formed  and  even  beautiful  features.  But,  on  the 
whole,  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  more  complete 
collection  of  ugly  and  lean  old  women  than  that  to  be 
seen  in  the  market  of  Asuncion. 

"They  sit  there  comparatively  silent,  abandoned  to 
their  fate,  with  their  merchandise  spread  out  on  the 
floor  in  front  of  them  —  a  few  cobs  of  maize,  a  few 
bundles  of  rough  cigars  tied  up  with  sewing  cotton, 
little  piles  of  mandioca,  sweet  potatoes,  oranges,  pea- 
nuts, sugar  cane,  some  vegetables  and  salad,  two  or 
three  cheeses  badly  made,  a  bunch  of  bananas,  or  what 
not.  Some  of  them  sell  charcoal  tied  up  in  little  sacks 
about  six  inches  long,  that  look  like  toys.  All  these 
speak  in  a  whining,  deprecatory  tone.  If  you  ask  the 
price  of  a  thing,  they  answer  almost  whimperingly,  as 
if  it  pained  them  to  tell  you.  Outside  the  market, 
under  the  colonnade,  you  see  similar  groups  of  young 
and  old  women  squatting  in  front  of  little  heaps  of 


THE   LAND   OF   PLENTY.  283 

produce  and  waiting  for  customers,  and  other  groups 
of  women  gliding  along  barefooted  and  noiselessly, 
indolent  and  ruminative,  each  one  with  a  cigar  between 
her  lips." 

Of  the  state  of  the  provincial  towns  and  villages, 
the  traveler  can  judge  by  a  trip  of  250  miles  up  the 
river  to  Villa  Concepcion,  or  by  a  railway  journey 
toward  Villa  Rica;  but,  except  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  lover  of  landscape  and  tropical  nature,  there 
is  not  much  to  make  the  journey  worth  one's  while. 
Villa  Concepcion  is  somewhat  less  advanced  than 
Asuncion  and  less  picturesque,  and  the  other  towns 
and  villages  offer  nothing  of  interest.  As  for  visiting 
parts  of  Paraguay  not  on  the  two  routes  mentioned,  the 
want  of  roads  and  ways  of  communication  renders  the 
task  long  and  toilsome. 

The  Paraguay  River  is  in  reality  an  affluent  of  the 
Parana — in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  Missouri 
River  is  an  affluent  of  the  Mississippi.  It  takes  its 
rise  in  a  chain  of  lakes  called  the  Seven  Lagoons,  in 
Brazilian  territory,  and  its  total  length  is  about  1800 
miles.  Its  average  width  is  360  yards,  and  its  mean 
depth  is  20  feet. 

Below  the  mouth  of  the  Apa,  the  navigation  of  the 
river  becomes  difficult  because  of  numerous  reefs  and 
sand  bars.  This  portion  of  the  river  is  described  as 
extremely  picturesque,  by  Dr.  E.  Dardye,  the  eminent 
French  geographer  and  explorer,  in  his  recent  work,  "  Le 
Paraguay."  He  says:  "Grand  terraces  of  gray  marble, 
honeycombed  with  deep  grottoes  peopled  by  an  infini- 
tude of  birds,  such  as  one  finds  only  in  Paraguay,  fringe 
the  main  channel  of  the  stream,  or  remain  half  hidden  in 


284  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

the  undergrowth  of  some  abandoned  arm  of  the  river. 
Giant  cacti  and  tree  ferns  cling  to  all  the  interstices  of 
the  rocks,  relieving  their  ruggedness.  In  the  distance 
lofty  hills  form  the  horizon.  The  trees,  at  certain  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  are  covered  by  glorious  flowers,  some 
resembling  enormous  bouquets  of  violets,  others  pre- 


A   RANCH   ON   THE   PLAINS. 


senting  translucent  masses  of  yellow  and  crimson  and 
every  conceivable  tint,  set  in  the  gray  background  of 
the  marble  rocks.  It  is  one  perpetual  scene  of  enchant- 
ment, which  commences  at  Itapucu  and  continues  till 
the  environs  of  the  ancient  city  of  Divino  Salvador  are 
reached." 

Some  miles  below  Salvador  the  banks  become  lower, 
and  the  country  resumes  its  monotonous  features. 
Below  Concepcion  the  river's  banks  are  high  on  the  left 
and  low  on  the  Chaco  side.  A  number  of  colonies  are 
established  in  these  regions.  Prior  to  the  late  disastrous 
war,  the  coast  for  many  miles  was  covered  with  rich 
cattle  farms.  They  were  all  destroyed  during  that 


THE   LAND   OF   PLENTY.  285 

terrible  struggle ;  but  they  are  now  being  repeopled, 
and  are  resuming  their  former  prosperity. 

The  two  staple  products  of  Paraguay  are  yerba  mate 
and  oranges. 

The  yerba  mate  was  employed  in  the  form  of  an  aro- 
matic drink  by  the  Indians,  who  taught  the  Spanish 
conquerors  to  appreciate  it.  The  consumption  of  mate 
is  now  quite  general  throughout  South  America,  not 
only  among  the  Creoles  and  the  old  settlers,  but  also 
among  the  new  immigrants.  It  is  preferred  to  Chinese 
tea,  coffee,  or  cocoa;  and  it  is  pronounced  by  certain 
scientists  to  be  a  waste-preventing  stimulant  of  real 
value. 

The  orange  tree,  it  is  supposed,  was  introduced  into 
Paraguay  by  the  Jesuits,  and  the  seeds  were  distributed 
by  birds.  Paraguay  is  the  land  of  orange  trees  more 
truly  than  Florida  or  California.  Both  wild  and 
cultivated  orange  trees  abound,  and  spread  over  the 
landscape  a  warm  golden  tinge  of  singular  intensity. 
The  Paraguayan  oranges  are  said  to  possess  a  delicacy 
that  those  of  Spain  and  Italy  have  never  attained. 
One  of  the  principal  industries  of  the  country  consists 
in  the  exportation  of  this  fruit.  The  great  orange  sea- 
son is  from  May  to  August,  when  the  ports  of  the  Para- 
guay River  dispatch  enormous  quantities  by  steamers 
and  schooners.  Some  60,000,000  oranges  are  exported 
annually;  about  the  same  quantity  is  consumed  by  the 
natives;  and  perhaps  treble  that  quantity  is  devoured 
by  monkeys  and  birds,  or  left  to  rot  on  the  ground. 

Consul  Baker,  in  his  report  cited  above,  says:  "The 
most  remarkable  industry  in  Paraguay  is  the  manufac- 
ture of  lace.  It  is  a  specialty  of  the  country,  entirely 


286  THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS. 

in  the  hands  of  the  Paraguayan  women,  and  finds  sale 
in  all  parts  of  South  America.  The  skill  which  they 
display  with  the  needle  is  wonderful,  the  art  being 
another  remnant  of  the  lessons  taught  by  the  Jesuits. 
The  pieces  of  edging,  insertion,  lace  handkerchiefs, 
worked  chemises,  headgear,  mantillas,  curtains,  shawls, 
tidies,  sofa  backs,  and  even  hammocks,  which  these 
women  sell  at  very  moderate  rates,  would,  in  any  other 
country  in  the  world,  command  exorbitant  prices." 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 
HISTORICAL   SKETCH  OF  URUGUAY. 

IN  1515  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis  sailed  with  three  caravels, 
from  the  port  of  Lepe,  in  Spain,  and  early  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  reached  the  coast  of  Brazil,  which  by 
that  time  had  been  visited  by  several  explorers.  Con- 
tinuing down  the  coast,  he  came  to  Cape  Santa  Maria 
within  the  limits  of  the  present  republic  of  Uruguay, 
and,  doubling  its  extremity,  entered  the  large  bay 
beyond,  which  he  is  said  to  have  visited  previously,  in 
1508.  From  this  place  he  continued  his  voyage  along 
the  coast  to  the  west  until  he  reached  an  island,  sup- 
posed to  be  that  which  is  now  called  San  Gabriel,  not 
far  from  the  present  city  and  port  of  Colonia. 

Leaving  two  of  his  vessels  anchored  at  this  island,  he 
set  sail  with  his  smallest  ship  and  arrived  at  the  island 
in  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  his  pilot,  Martin  Garcia,  which  it  has 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF   URUGUAY.  287 

retained  to  this  day.  Determined  to  take  possession  of 
the  country  in  the  name  of  the  Crown  of  Castile,  and 
to  explore  the  coast  region,  he  disembarked  with  nine 
companions.  A  band  of  natives  from  a  place  of  conceal- 
ment had  watched  their  landing,  and,  attacking  them 
unexpectedly,  killed  Solis  with  eight  of  his  men,  and 
captured  the  remaining  one,  who  was  badly  wounded. 

Three  years  later  Ferdinand  Magellan,  following  the 
same  course  as  Solis,  entered  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. 
This  river  he  explored  for  some  distance  in  an  attempt 
to  penetrate  westward  in  search  of  a  route  to  the  East 
Indies,  which  was  the  constant  object  of  the  explorers 
of  that  time.  He  soon  abandoned  this  purpose,  how- 
ever, and  continued  his  voyage  down  the  coast  of  Pata- 
gonia, until  driven  back  by  one  of  the  cold  storms  so 
frequent  in  that  region. 

Sebastian  Cabot  in  1526  sent  an  expedition  to  explore 
the  country  along  the  Uruguay,  but  the  band  was  at- 
tacked by  the  natives  and  its  leader  killed,  with  many 
of  his  followers.  Cabot  himself  ascended  the  Plata, 
entered  the  Parana,  and  pushed  his  expedition  as  far 
as  the  great  falls  called  Salto  de  Agua.  He  established 
military  posts  and  settlements  along  the  streams, 
against  the  fierce  and  determined  opposition  of  the 
savages,  who  resisted  desperately  every  advance  of  the 
strangers.  In  1527  he  directed  the  erection  of  the  first 
fort  constructed  in  the  "Banda  Oriental,"  or  belt  of 
country  east  of  the  Uruguay.  It  was  situated  on  the 
river  San  Salvador  as  a  protection  against  the  attacks 
of  the  natives,  and  was  held  until  1580,  when  it  was 
abandoned  by  its  garrison.  These  were  the  first  at- 
tempts at  the  occupation  of  the  region. 


288  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Two  later  attempts  of  the  Spaniards  to  settle  Uru- 
guay, one  in  1550  and  the  other  in  1574,  were  failures. 
In  the  meanwhile,  they  had  established  themselves  firmly 
in  Paraguay,  and  were  pushing  their  settlements  into 
the  country  now  known  as  the  Argentine  Republic. 
They  kept  up  their  efforts  to  gain  a  foothold  in  the 
region  east  of  the  Uruguay,  where  the  rich  pastures 
attracted  the  raisers  of  cattle.  The  opposition  of  the 
natives  was,  however,  so  fierce  and  so  successful  that 
little  or  no  progress  toward  occupation  was  made 
for  a  long  time;  and  even  as  late  as  1603  a  veteran 
Spanish  force  was  routed  in  pitched  battle.  So  it 
was  not  until  1624  that  the  first  permanent  settlement 
was  founded. 

The  Banda  Oriental  belonged  nominally  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  Buenos  Aires,  but  the  jurisdiction  was  dis- 
puted by  Spain  and  Portugal.  As  it  was  almost  entirely 
unoccupied  by  the  Spaniards,  the  Portuguese,  who 
had  already  established  themselves  firmly  in  Brazil, 
attempted  the  occupation  of  the  country  by  establish- 
ing, in  1680,  the  colony  of  Sacramento,  nearly  opposite 
Buenos  Aires.  A  lively  trade  sprang  up  between  the 
two  places,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Buenos  Aires  were 
enabled  to  obtain,  at  a  much  lower  price,  various  arti- 
cles which  they  had  previously  been  compelled  to  get 
from  Peru  under  an  exorbitant  tax.  Extending  their 
possession  in  1723,  the  Portuguese  seized  and  fortified 
the  heights  surrounding  the  bay  of  Montevideo,  and 
thus  greatly  strengthened  their  hold  upon  the  sur- 
rounding territory. 

The  Spaniards,  menaced  in  their  possessions  and 
revenues,  dispatched  an  expedition  in  1724  against 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF   URUGUAY. 


289 


the  Portuguese,  who  surrendered  to  the  attacking  force 
without  resistance.  In  January,  1726,  a  settlement  of 
six  families  made  the  beginning  of  the  city  of  Monte- 
video. These  families  came  from  Buenos  Aires,  and 
were  joined,  during  the  same  year,  by  twelve  more, 
brought  from  the  Canary  Islands.  Then  followed  a 
long  struggle  between  the  Spaniards  and  the  Portu- 


THE   GOVERNMENT    HOUSE    IN    MONTEVIDEO. 

guese  for  the  possession  of  the  country,  which  resulted 
in  establishing  the  claim  of  Spain. 

The  effort  made  by  England  to  extend  her  territory 
in  South  America  is  interesting.  In  1806  an  English 
fleet,  under  Commodore  Popham,  appeared  before  Monte- 
video, but  finding  the  place  prepared  for  attack,  pro- 
ceeded to  Buenos  Aires,  which  it  captured  without 
much  resistance.  The  whole  English  force  consisted 


290  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

of  five  vessels  and  only  1500  men,  and  the  slight  resist- 
ance offered  by  the  viceroy  has  been  imputed  to  cow- 
ardice. The  indignation  excited  by  the  surrender  made 
it  easy  for  Captain  Liriiers  to  collect  a  body  of  about 
3000  men  for  the  recapture  of  the  place.  He  attacked 
the  English  in  Buenos  Aires,  and  after  a  fierce  struggle 
forced  them  to  surrender.  When  the  news  of  the  cap- 
ture of  Buenos  Aires  by  Popham  reached  England,  it 
was  determined  to  complete  the  conquest  of  the  coun- 
.  try,  and  a  fleet  was  dispatched  to  the  Plata  with  a  force 
of  5300  men.  On  their  arrival,  however,  affairs  were 
completely  changed  by  the  recapture  of  the  city  by  the 
Spaniards,  and  they  made  no  attempt  to  carry  out  the 
object  of  the  expedition. 

England,  however,  was  persistent.  Popham  remained 
in  the  river,  threatening  the  eastern  shore,  but  was 
repulsed  in  an  attempt  to  capture  Montevideo.  In 
January,  1807,  a  fleet  with  reinforcements  having 
arrived  from  England,  a  second  attack  was  made  on 
Montevideo;  and  on  the  night  of  February  2,  after  a 
vigorous  assault  by  land  and  sea,  the  city  was  taken 
by  the  English  forces.  Soon  after  this,  the  combined 
English  forces  in  the  river  made  an  attack  on  Buenos 
Aires,  but  were  disastrously  defeated.  They  withdrew 
from  Montevideo  and  abandoned  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. 

Having  successfully  defended  their  soil  from  inva- 
sion, the  people  of  the  country  had  learned  their 
strength,  and  were  prepared  to  take  the  government 
into  their  own  hands.  On  the  25th  of  May,  1810,  the 
people  of  Buenos  Aires  chose  a  council  to  carry  on 
the  government.  This  step  was  the  beginning  of  the 
struggle  that  put  an  end  to  Spanish  rule  in  South 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH   OF   URUGUAY.  291 

America.  After  varying  fortunes,  and  a  succession 
of  victories  and  defeats,  the  Uruguayans  succeeded  in 
expelling  the  Spaniards  from  the  country,  and  a  con- 
federation of  the  provinces  of  Uruguay  was  formed 
under  Artigas,  who  was  called  the  Protector. 

Uruguay,  however,  was  not  long  to  enjoy  its  hard- 
earned  independence.  The  Portuguese  had  never 
renounced  their  claim  to  the  country  up  to  the  Plata; 
and  at  the  invitation  of  certain  malcontents,  they  sent  a 
force  from  Brazil  to  overthrow  Artigas.  After  a  cam- 
paign of  hard  fighting,  they  succeeded  in  capturing 
Montevideo.  Maldonado  was  taken  by  a  Portuguese 
fleet,  but  the  country,  for  the  greater  part,  still  remained 
true  to  Artigas.  He  continued  the  struggle  against  the 
invaders  and  against  the  revolting  leaders  in  his  own 
country,  until,  overcome  by  the  superior  force  of  his 
adversaries,  he  was  forced  to  take  refuge  in  Paraguay, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death,  in  1850. 

The  Portuguese  controlled  affairs  in  Uruguay  until, 
in  1825,  a  band  of  thirty-three  Uruguayan  refugees 
left  Buenos  Aires  and  entered  Uruguay,  with  the 
hope  of  provoking  a  revolt  against  its  rulers.  Many 
of  the  inhabitants  joined  them,  and  they  eventually 
became  strong  enough  to  defeat  a  Brazilian  force  at  San 
Salvador.  The  insurgents  proceeded  to  elect  mem- 
bers to  an  assembly,  which  issued  a  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence. 

The  revolution  gained  strength.  The  Brazilian  cav- 
alry was  twice  defeated,  and  the  Brazilians  were  reduced 
to  the  garrisons  of  Montevideo  and  Colon ia.  The 
Argentine  government  now  intervened,  declaring  that 
the  province  of  Colon  ia  belonged  to  them;  and  the 


292  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Brazilians  retaliated  by  declaring  war  on  that  republic, 
and  sent  a  fleet  to  blockade  Buenos  Aires.  In  several 
attacks  the  Argentine  forces  were  repulsed,  but  they, 
in  turn,  practically  annihilated  a  Brazilian  expedition 
into  the  Uruguay  River.  Many  years  were  consumed 
in  warfare,  and  the  full  independence  of  Uruguay  was 
not  secured  until  1865,  when  the  republic  was  estab- 
lished, and  General  Flores  was  elected  its  first  presi- 
dent. 

In  1866  the  republic  of  Uruguay  became  allied  with 
Brazil  in  the  war  declared  by  the  latter  country  against 
Francisco  Lopez,  dictator  of  Paraguay.  In  this  war, 
which  continued  until  March,  1870,  the  Uruguayan 
forces  numbered  about  2000  men ;  and  General  Flores 
distinguished  himself  by  a  complete  victory  over  a 
division  of  the  Paraguayans  at  Yatay,  on  the  17th  of 
August,  1865. 

A  number  of  petty  revolutions  occurred  between  the 
years  1866  and  1875,  but  since  that  time  the  country  has 
enjoyed  comparative  quiet.  The  political  agitations 
have  lost  much  of  their  bitterness,  and  the  people  seem 
less  inclined  to  sacrifice  themselves  and  their  welfare 
to  the  ambitions  of  military  leaders.  The  republic 
appears  to  have  entered  upon  the  path  of  constitutional 
progress  and  the  regime  of  law  and  order.  The  presi- 
dents, of  late  years,  have  exhibited  wisdom  in  govern- 
ing under  difficult  circumstances,  and  have  shown  a 
patriotic  ambition  to  advance  their  country's  welfare 
rather  than  their  personal  interests.  As  the  nation 
emerges  from  the  cloud  of  a  great  financial  storm  which 
had  gathered  over  it,  it  can  look  to  a  future  bright  with 
prosperity. 


THE   SMALLEST   REPUBLIC.  293 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

THE  SMALLEST  REPUBLIC. 

URUGUAY  is  the  smallest  independent  state  in  South 
America;  but  still  it  is  a  country  about  as  large  as  the 
six  New  England  states,  with  New  Jersey  and  Dela- 
ware added.  It  has  a  population  of  nearly  920,000, 
of  whom  90,000  are  foreigners. 

It  is  said  that  there  is  not  an  acre  of  unproductive 
land  in  all  Uruguay,  and  that  it  is  capable  of  support- 
ing a  population  as  large  as  that  of  Great  Britain.  The 
soil  and  climate  are  of  such  a  character  that  any  grain 
or  fruit  in  the  list  of  the  world's  products  can  be  pro- 
duced in  abundance.  Coffee  will  grow  beside  corn,  and 
bananas  and  pineapples  beside  wheat.  Sugar  and  po- 
tatoes, apples  and  oranges,  in  fact,  all  things  that  man 
requires  for  food  and  clothing,  can  be  raised  within 
the  boundaries  of  the  republic  at  a  minimum  of  labor. 

There  are  also  medicinal  plants,  forests  of  useful 
timber,  and  grass  of  the  most  nutritious  quality  for 
cattle,  so  abundant  that  ten  times  as  many  animals  can 
be  fed  upon  the  same  area  as  in  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic. The  supply  of  water  for  mechanical  purposes  is 
plentiful;  and  geologists  say  that  coal-beds  underlie 
much  of  the  surface  of  the  northern  provinces.  The 
climate  is  moist,  mild,  and  healthy ;  and  there  are  really 
only  two  seasons,  summer  and  winter. 

The  physical  aspect  presents  a  strong  contrast  to 
the  flat,  treeless,  and  often  arid  pampas  of  the  Argen- 
tines. The  hill  chains  are  numerous,  and  spread  over 
the  whole  country,  forming  many  streams,  rivers,  and 


294  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

lakes.  The  important  rivers  number  seventeen,  of 
which  the  chief  are  the  Plata,  the  Rio  Negro,  and 
the  Uruguay.  The  Rio  Negro  runs  through  the  center 
of  the  territory.  Nearly  all  sections  of  the  republic 
may  be  reached  by  navigable  rivers,  and  natural  harbors 
are  frequent  along  the  coast. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Plata  is  seen  a  single  high 
hill  close  to  the  water's  edge.  It  is  the  landmark  from 
which  Montevideo  derives  its  name,  for  that  name  means 
"I  see  a  mountain."  It  guards  the  entrance  to  a  deep 
cove,  which  forms  the  inner  harbor.  The  city  will  soon 
have  the  finest  artificial  port  in  the  south  Atlantic 
Ocean,  contracts  for  its  construction  having  already  been 
awarded  and  ratified  by  Congress.  It  will  take  some 
three  years  to  complete  the  work,  the  cost  of  which 
will  be  about  $12,000,000. 

The  city  stands  on  a  peninsula  perhaps  half  a  mile  in 
width,  with  its  streets  sloping  toward  the  river-front 
on  one  side  and  toward  the  bay  on  the  other.  Thirty 
years  ago  only  a  portion  of  this  peninsula  wras  occu- 
pied. Now  the  city  stretches  outward  for  miles  along 
the  river,  and  back  of  the  bay  there  are  beautiful  sub- 
urbs with  lovely  gardens. 

The  population  probably  exceeds  270,000,  and  is 
increasing  with  remarkable  rapidity.  Immigration 
within  the  last  decade  has  reenforced  the  Uruguayan 
stock  with  large  contingents  from  Italy  and  Spain. 
The  Italians  take  the  place  of  the  negroes  of  a  Brazilian 
coast  city  as  the  working  population. 

A  writer  in  the  New  England  Magazine  says,  "  Monte- 
video is  neither  quaint  like  Bahia,  nor  picturesque  like 
Rio,  but  it  is  modern  and  handsome.  The  streets  are 


296  THE  SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

wide,  well  paved  and  lighted,  and  compactly  built  up. 
The  architecture  is  modern  and  massive.  Granite  and 
Italian  marbles  are  used  in  the  handsome  building 
fronts.  Portuguese  tiles  are  seen  only  in  the  oldest 
quarters  of  the  town.  Plaster  fronts,  so  common  in 
Brazil,  are  replaced  with  fine  building  stone,  much  of 
which  is  quarried  in  the  Uruguay  hills.  The  leading 
thoroughfare,  the  Paseo  de  Julio,  recording  a  date  of 
patriotic  memory,  is  approached  from  Plaza  Constitu- 
cion,  where  stands  the  cathedral,  a  massive  building 
with  two  towers.  On  another  side  is  the  showy  Uru- 
guay clubhouse.  Close  at  hand  is  the  chief  opera  house 
and  theater  of  the  town.  A  few  blocks  farther  on  is  a 
plaza,  surrounded  on  four  sides  by  government  and 
other  buildings,  with  continuous  lines  of  colonnades 
and  arcades:  a  unique  and  striking  effect.  A  third 
plaza,  with  a  graceful  column  surmounted  with  a  statue 
of  Liberty,  is  in  the  heart  of  the  city.  All  the  way 
from  the  Plaza  Independencia,  the  Julio  is  lined  with 
handsome  shops,  in  which  European  goods  are  attrac- 
tively displayed.  It  has  the  airy  effect  of  a  cool, 
tasteful,  Parisian  boulevard." 

Montevideo  is  as  modern  in  its  manner  of  life  as  in 
its  architectural  aspects.  Bustle  and  activity  pervade 
its  streets.  There  are  street  cars  trundling  in  every 
thoroughfare,  and  the  musical  horns  of  the  conductors 
are  heard  long  past  midnight  and  in  the  earliest  hours 
of  the  morning.  Handsome  carriages  and  cabs  are 
in  the  streets.  The  wide  sidewalks  are  thronged  with 
a  busy,  energetic,  and  thrifty  population.  The  city 
has  a  wide-awake  and  prosperous  air  that  reminds  one 
strongly  of  Boston  or  New  York.  But  Montevideo 


THE   SMALLEST   REPUBLIC.  297 

is  European  rather  than  American  in  its  aspects  and 
customs. 

It  is  claimed  that  Montevideo  is  the  most  healthy  city 
in  the  world.  This  seems  reasonable,  as  the  natural 
drainage  is  perfect  and  the  climate  is  much  like  that  of 
Tennessee,  the  cold  weather  of  winter  being  moderated 
by  the  warm  ocean  current,  and  the  heat  of  summer  by 
the  sea  breeze  that  seldom  fails  to  perform  its  grateful 
service.  Such  a  thing  as  a  stove  is  not  to  be  found  in 
the  whole  country,  but  some  of  the  foreigners  have 
fireplaces  in  their  houses. 

All  the  languages  of  the  civilized  world  are  heard  in 
the  streets  and  social  circles  of  the  capital ;  no  city  on 
the  continent  has  a  more  cosmopolitan  character.  The 
streets  are  straight  and  wide,  and  generally  well 
kept.  The  city  proper  contains  upward  of  12,000 
houses,  of  which  about  one-fifth  are  of  three  or  four 
stories,  and  many  handsome  residences  are  in  process 
of  construction.  The  city  has  at  present  a  constant 
and  steady  growth. 

The  most  beautiful  suburb  of  the  city  is  Paso  del 
Molino,  where  are  situated  the  Prado,  a  public  park, 
and  line  upon  line  of  tasteful  villas  surrounded  with 
gardens.  These  suburban  houses  are  utterly  unlike  the 
old-fashioned  Portuguese  mansions  of  Brazil,  and  belong 
to  the  modern  class  of  spacious,  well-designed,  and 
thoroughly  comfortable  country  residences.  It  is  seven 
degrees  nearer  the  equator  than  New  York,  and  the 
climate  is  more  equable. 

The  gardens  are  lovely.  Roses  are  grown  in  endless 
varieties  and  require  no  protection  in  winter.  Uru- 
guay is  called  the  land  of  roses.  Many  other  flowers 


298 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


bloom  all  through  the  year.  Fine  lawns  are  not  often 
seen,  as  the  grass  is  not  suitable  for  good  landscape 
effects ;  but  the  displays  of  trees  and  flowering  shrub- 
bery of  all  kinds  are  exceedingly  beautiful. 

Agricultural  development  in  Uruguay  has  been  rather 
unsatisfactory.    There  has  been  progress,  but  it  has  been 

feeble.  However, 
the  establishment 
of  agricultural 
colonies,  which 
is  being  pushed 
with  much  activ- 
ity, promises  bet- 
ter results. 

This  small  re- 
public is  becom- 
ing famous  for  the 
abundance,  excel- 
lence, and  variety 
of  its  fruits ;  and 
of  late  years  the 
exportation  of 
pears  and  apples 
to  Buenos  Aires 
and  Brazil  has 
become  of  great 
importance.  Fine  strawberries  of  this  country  are  to  be 
seen  in  the  markets  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  together  with 
peaches  and  plums  from  the  same  source.  Apples,  pears, 
peaches,  cherries,  plums,  lemons,  limes,  pomegranates, 
and  grapes  thrive  throughout  the  entire  territory ;  and 
in  the  northern  part,  near  the  Brazilian  border,  grow  the 


THE    BAKER    DELIVERING    BREAD. 


THE   SMALLEST   REPUBLIC.  299 

banana,  the  cocoanut,  the  pineapple,  the  orange,  and  many 
other  tropical  and  semi-tropical  fruits.  Quince  trees 
are  so  numerous  as  to  form  forests ;  and  the  making  of 
preserves  from  this  fruit  constitutes  a  valuable  industry. 

The  flora  of  the  country  is  abundant  and  varied.  The 
flowers  are  the  admiration  of  all  strangers ;  and  the  for- 
ests abound  with  cabinet  and  building  woods  of  great 
beauty  and  durability,  which  are  unknown  in  Europe 
even  by  name. 

An  important  industry  is  that  of  the  saladeros  — 
establishments  where  animals  are  killed,  and  their 
hides  are  dried  and  salted.  The  flesh  and  bones  are 
prepared  for  export  or  otherwise  utilized.  The  model 
establishment,  and  the  most  famous,  is  that  of  Fray 
Bentos,  where  Liebig's  extract  of  beef  is  made.  This 
saladero,  founded  in  1864,  kills  1000  animals  a  day 
during  the  summer  season,  and  employs  6000  men. 

Sheep  farming  is  receiving  increased  attention  of 
late  years,  and,  apart  from  the  value  of  the  wool,  it  is 
becoming  as  important  as  the  cattle  industry.  Frozen 
carcasses  are  shipped  in  large  quantities  to  Europe. 
The  improvement  of  the  breeds  of  sheep  will  largely 
increase  the  value  of  the  wool-clip  in  the  future. 

An  American,  who  has  recently  visited  the  La  Plata 
region,  writes:  — 

"In  the  Argentine  the  ranches  appeared  miserable 
enough,  but  in  Uruguay  I  saw  many  even  more  primi- 
tive: mere  huts  of  black  mud,  with  roof  of  maize  straw, 
a  floor  of  beaten  earth,  a  doorway,  but  not  always  a 
window.  The  cabins  of  the  Irish  peasantry  give  some 
idea  of  the  Uruguayan  rancho.  It  is  a  comfortless, 
unhealthy,  rheumatic  dwelling.  ...  As  for  the  towns, 


300  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

after  Montevideo,  the  most  important  is  Paysandu, 
which  differs  in  no  respect  from  a  dozen  Argentine 
towns  similarly  situated. 

"  In  that  blending  of  races  that  accompanied  the  con- 
quest of  the  country,  the  pure  native  element  has  almost 
disappeared,  and  even  the  'gaucho,'  who  represented  the 
cross  of  the  European  and  the  aboriginal,  has  begun  to 
adopt  the  civilized  customs  and  garb,  and  to  lose  him- 
self in  the  growth  of  the  modern  and  distinctive  national 
type  formed  by  the  infusion  of  European  blood,  through 
immigration,  into  the  population  of  mixed  Spanish  and 
native  origin." 

The  people  of  Uruguay  have  shown  considerable 
energy  and  enterprise,  and,  but  for  the  numerous  politi- 
cal dissensions  and  civil  wars,  would  have  already 
reached  a  higher  stage  of  progress.  They  are  hospitable 
to  excess,  welcoming  strangers  with  unaffected  kind- 
ness. They  are  also  liberal  and  tolerant  toward  reli- 
gious and  political  opinions  different  from  their  own ; 
gay  in  disposition,  and  fond  of  festivities ;  eager  for 
instruction,  and  appreciative  of  excellence  in  the  arts 
arid  literature. 

The  ladies  of  Uruguay  are  considered  to  rank  next 
to  their  sisters  of  Peru  in  beaut}^  and  there  is  some- 
thing about  the  atmosphere  which  gives  their  com- 
plexion a  purity  and  clearness  that  is  not  found  among 
the  ladies  of  any  other  country. 

That  the  race  possesses  elements  capable  of  building 
up  national  greatness  is  indisputable.  The  proof  lies 
in  the  constant  progress  it  has  made  against  the  uncom- 
mon obstacles  of  its  earlier  years,  and  in  spite  of  the 
civil  and  international  wars  that  have  so  often  swept 
over  the  young  nation. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH   OF  CHILE.  301 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 
HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF   CHILE. 

THE  name  "  Chile "  is  derived,  probably,  from  an 
ancient  Peruvian  word  "Tchili,"  which  means  snow, 
—  a  name  taken,  doubtless,  from  the  snow-capped  Cor- 
dilleras, which  rise  along  the  country  on  the  east. 
All  through  the  year,  this  covering  of  pure  white 
smooths  out  the  rugged  outlines  of  the  mountain 
peaks,  and  presents  a  most  refreshing  spectacle  to  the 
dwellers  in  the  valleys. 

Of  its  2600  miles  of  length  from  the  province  of 
Tacna  to  Cape  Horn,  fully  one-half  of  Chili  —  the  north- 
ern —  is  desert,  devoid  of  vegetation  and  rarely  moist- 
ened by  a  drop  of  rain.  The  southern  half  is  wooded 
and  capable  of  producing  rich  crops  of  grain ;  while  the 
central  section,  in  the  valleys,  presents  as  fine  an  agri- 
cultural landscape  as  one  can  see  anywhere  in  the  world. 

Lying  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  Chile's  seasons 
are  the  reverse  of  ours ;  our  winter  becomes  its  summer, 
and  vice  versa.  There  are  few  hotter  places  in  the  world 
than  the  city  of  Iquique  in  the  month  of  January.  The 
southern  winters  are  characterized  by  rains,  but  it  would 
be  difficult  to  find  a  more  delightful  climate  anywhere 
than  that  of  central  Chile  in  March  and  April.  The 
nights  are  always  cool ;  after  the  sun  sets,  a  cold  air 
creeps  down  from  the  mountain-tops,  that  makes  a 
blanket  not  only  desirable,  but  necessary. 

Chile  first  became  known  to  Europeans  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  Prior  to  the  conquest  of  Peru  by 
Pizarro,  even.,  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 


302  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

century,  one  of  the  Inca  chiefs  had  tried  from  time  to 
time  to  gain  a  foothold  in  the  south,  but  had  invari- 
ably been  compelled  to  retire  after  a  brief  stay,  owing 
to  the  indomitable  spirit  of  the  aborigines,  the  famous 
Araucanian  Indians.  The  Incas  finally  conquered, 
however,  and  at  the  time  of  the  invasion  by  Pizarro, 
the  renowned  Inca  chief,  Atahualpa,  dominated  the 
country.  He  was  a  wise  ruler,  and  had  advanced  the 
standard  of  Inca  civilization  to  the  highest  point,  when 
the  Spaniard  appeared  arid  began  his  course  of  rapine 
and  destruction. 

Not  content  with  the  conquest  of  Peru,  Pizarro  dis- 
patched an  expedition  to  conquer  Chile.  This  was  in 
1535.  The  invaders,  however,  met  with  such  deter- 
mined resistance  from  the  Araucanians  that  they  were 
compelled  to  retire  in  order  to  save  their  lives.  This 
failure  only  made  Pizarro  more  ambitious  to  succeed. 
The  opposition  stirred  his  fiery  temperament;  and  the 
reports  which  his  lieutenants  brought  back,  of  fertile 
valleys,  gold  and  silver,  and  the  delightful  climate, 
made  him  decide  to  lead  an  expedition  in  person.  His 
personal  attention,  however,  was  required  elsewhere, 
and  he  sent  the  second  expedition  in  charge  of  Valdivia. 
It  was  his  intention  to  follow,  but  he  was  assassinated 
in  1541. 

Valdivia  reached  the  Mapocho  River  and  fortified 
himself  on  the  famous  hill  of  Santa  Lucia,  where  San- 
tiago now  stands.  A  few  years  later  he  founded  the 
town  of  Valdivia,  some  400  miles  farther  south.  His 
life  was  one  continual  battle  with  the  natives,  who 
seldom  gave  him  the  chance  to  reap  a  peaceful  harvest, 
and  he  was  finally  obliged  to  retreat.  The  history  of 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH    OF    CHILE.  303 

the  next  180  years  is  a  repetition  of  similar  experiences. 
Attempt  after  attempt  was  made  by  the  Spaniards  to 
conquer  the  country,  but  always  without  success. 
These  expeditions,  however,  have  had  an  important 
bearing  on  the  Chilean  natives  of  to-day,  in  making 
them  a  mixed  race,  the  product  of  the  adventurous, 


ARAUCANIAN    INDIANS. 


cruel,  and  unscrupulous  Spaniards,  and  the  indomi- 
table Araucanians,  who  for  courage  have  no  superior  in 
the  world. 

In  1722  the  Araucanians  finally  consented  to  a  treaty 
whereby  the  river  Bio-Bio  was  agreed  upon  as  a  boundary 
between  their  territory  and  the  Spanish  country.  They 
preserve  their  identity  to  this  day,  and  in  some  of  the 


301 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


isolated  parts  of  the  southern  provinces  are  still  in  a 
savage  state;  but  alcohol  is  proving  a  more  subtle  foe 
than  the  Spaniard,  and  it  is  safe  to  predict  their  entire 
disappearance  as  a  race  within  a  few  years. 


ARAUCANIAN   WOMEN. 


After  the  treaty  of  1722  the  country  north  of  Bio-Bio 
was  divided  into  thirteen  provinces,  under  the  control 
of  a  governor  appointed  by  the  viceroy  of  Peru.  This 
continued  until  1810. 

The  history  of  Spanish  rule  in  Chile  is  but  a  repe- 
tition of  its  history  in  Peru  and  Mexico,  a  systematic 
series  of  oppressions  for  the  personal  aggrandizement  of 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH    OF   CHILE.  305 

the  governor.  This  finally  led  to  a  revolution  in  1810, 
in  which  the  Spanish  governor  was  deposed  and  a  coun- 
cil of  seven  men,  chosen  by  the  native  Chileans,  was 
put  in  his  place. 

They  still  recognized  the  sovereignty  of  Spain,  but 
instituted  reforms  to  which  Spain  could  not  agree,  so 
that  it  was  practically  a  revolution.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  a  collision  occurred  between  Spanish  sol- 
diers and  the  patriots,  which  resulted  in  a  defeat  of 
the  soldiers  and  the  discarding  of  all  semblance  of 
allegiance  to  Spain.  Spain  was  at  that  time  entirely 
taken  up  with  the  invasion  of  her  own  soil  by  the 
French,  and  could  not  spare  the  forces  necessary  to 
assert  herself  in  her  provinces ;  but  as  soon  as  she  could 
turn  her  attention  to  Chile,  she  again  attempted  to 
resume  her  supremacy. 

A  powerful  Spanish  army  invaded  Chile  in  1813, 
but  was  twice  defeated  by  the  republican  troops.  The 
Spaniards,  however,  speedily  received  reinforcements ; 
and,  after  a  severe  contest,  Chile  was  once  more  obliged 
to  own  the  sovereignty  of  Spain.  For  three  years  the 
people  submitted  to  the  old  system  of  tyranny  and 
misgovernment,  until  at  length  the  patriot  refugees, 
having  levied  an  army  in  La  Plata,  marched  against 
the  Spaniards,  and  in  1817  completely  defeated  them 
at  Chacabuco. 

The  Chileans  then  proceeded  to  establish  a  govern- 
ment, and  made  Don  Bernardo  O'Higgins  supreme  dic- 
tator. The  Spaniards  did  not  give  up  the  struggle  by 
any  means,  but  gathered  reinforcements  and  began  their 
attacks  anew,  at  first  with  some  success.  The  Chilean 
patriots  rallied  for  a  final  effort,  and  on  the  plains  of 


306  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

the  river  Maipu,  on  April  5,  1818,  they  attacked  and 
utterly  routed  the  Spaniards. 

General  O'Higgins  held  the  office  of  supreme  dictator 
until  1823,  when  a  popular  tumult  obliged  him  to 
resign.  From  1823  to  1828  was  an  unsettled  period. 
The  arbitrary  character  of  the  rulers,  and  the  lack  of 
familiarity  with  the  principles  of  self-government,  re- 
sulted in  much  confusion,  and  caused  many  changes 
in  the  office  of  chief  magistrate;  but  the  outcome  was 
a  national  constitution,  embodying  many  of  the  princi- 
ples of  our  own  constitution.  This  document  was 
revised  in  1833,  and  became  the  corner-stone  of  the 
Chilean  nation. 

The  political  condition  of  Chile  between  1886  and 
1892  is  of  peculiar  interest  because  of  the  difficulty  in 
which  the  United  States  Government  became  involved. 
For  many  years  after  the  adoption  of  the  republican 
form  of  government  the  country  was  strongly  conserva- 
tive. As  time  passed,  however,  modern  ideas  and 
liberal  views  came  to  be  entertained.  The  Liberal 
party  grew  in  power  and  soon  became  divided  by 
struggles  for  leadership  and  office.  The  most  radical 
section  of  this  party  had  its  nucleus  in  a  reform  club  in 
Santiago,  which  was  composed,  for  the  most  part,  of 
young  men  of  university  education,  of  whom  Balmaceda 
was  the  most  conspicuous.  He  had  entered  Congress 
in  1868,  and  rose  to  great  distinction  as  a  congressional 
leader  and  debater.  As  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Lib- 
eral party  that  had  demanded  important  changes  in  the 
constitution,  he  acquired  great  popularity  and  strength ; 
and  he  added  to  his  reputation  by  service  as  minister  to 
the  Argentine  Republic  during  the  Peruvian  war.  In 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH   OF   CHILE. 


307 


1885   his  popularity  carried  him  into  the   presidency 
by  an  overwhelming  majority. 

The  early  part  of  his  administration  was  characterized 
by  great  wisdom,  liberality,  and  success.  He  introduced 
the  complete  separation  of  Church  and  State,  a  thorough 


THE  CAPITOL  AT  SANTIAGO. 

system  of  popular  education,  and  a  system  of  normal 
schools  with  modern  buildings  and  advanced  methods 
of  instruction.  He  caused  a  civil  marriage  law  to  be 
adopted.  He  also  entered  upon  an  elaborate  system 
of  internal  improvements, — building  railroads,  con- 
structing harbors,  providing  dry  docks,  wharves,  and 
piers. 


308  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

In  the  midst  of  extensive  plans  for  full  representa- 
tion of  the  arts  and  industries  of  Chile  at  the  World's 
Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago,  with  the  avowed 
object  of  establishing  closer  commercial  relations  with 
the  great  republic  of  the  North,  the  prosperity  of  this 
remarkable  administration  came  to  an  abrupt  end. 

Some  of  the  Liberal  members,  thinking  the  president 
was  going  forward  too  rapidly,  united  with  the  old 
Conservative  leaders,  and  Congress  was  soon  broken  up 
into  five  separate  factions.  What  were  thought  to  be 
arbitrary  characteristics  of  the  president  led  to  hostility 
and  revolt,  which  before  many  months  took  the  form  of 
a  war  between  Balmaceda,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
representatives  of  Congress,  known  as  the  Junta,  on 
the  other.  This  war  was  carried  on  actively  for  seven 
months,  in  different  parts  of  the  republic. 

Balmaceda,  after  many  bloody  battles,  was  over- 
whelmed with  defeat,  and  the  insurgents  entered  Valpa- 
raiso in  triumph.  Foreign  interests  and  residents  were 
well  protected  by  detachments  of  marines  from  the 
numerous  men-of-war  collected  for  that  purpose  in  the 
bay  of  Valparaiso.  Among  these  were  the  Baltimore, 
commanded  by  Captain,  now  Admiral,  Schley,  and  the 
San  Francisco,  the  surgeons  of  which  were  very  active 
in  caring  for  the  enormous  number  of  wounded. 

Most  of  the  government  officials,  fearing  that  their 
persons  would  be  as  little  respected  as  their  property, 
took  refuge  in  the  various  foreign  legations  of  the  city, 
Balmaceda  choosing  that  of  the  Argentine.  There 
arrangements  were  made  by  a  few  devoted  friends, 
among  whom  were  several  Americans,  for  his  escape  to 
the  Argentine  by  way  of  the  Andes;  but  Balmaceda 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH   OF  CHILE.  309 

refused  to  avail  himself  of  the  opportunity,  utterly 
rejecting  the  idea  of  flight.  He  offered  to  deliver  him- 
self up  to  the  Junta  for  trial.  But  the  popular  excite- 
ment was  so  great  that  the  Junta  could  not,  or  would 
not,  give  the  least  assurance  that  he  might  not  become 
the  victim  of  mob  violence  the  moment  he  abandoned 
the  Argentine  legation.  Finally,  after  waiting  a 
month,  in  a  fit  of  desperation  he  took  his  life  with  his 
own  hand,  on  September  19,  1891. 

During  the  whole  of  this  struggle  the  partisans  of 
the  Junta  were  extremely  hostile  to  the  government  of 
the  United  States,  claiming  that  Patrick  Egan,  our 
minister,  had  conducted  himself  in  a  manner  unfriendly 
to  their  cause.  This  hostility  was  felt  most  keenly  by 
resident  Americans  and  by  the  officers  and  men  of  the 
United  States  cruisers  in  the  harbor  of  Valparaiso. 
It  culminated  when  two  boats'  crews  from  the  Baltimore, 
while  enjoying  leave  on  shore,  got  into  a  dispute  with 
some  Chilean  marines  in  a  drinking  saloon.  The  testi- 
mony subsequently  taken  proved  that  a  man  from  the 
Baltimore,  resenting  some  insulting  remarks  made  by 
the  Chileans,  knocked  one  of  them  down,  whereupon 
knives  and  other  weapons  were  drawn,  and  finally  the 
affair  grew  into  a  riot.  The  quarrel  was  not  limited 
to  the  saloon,  but  was  taken  into  the  street  and  aug- 
mented by  an  excited  mob.  Several  of  the  United 
States  marines,  while  fighting  their  way  back  to  their 
boats,  received  dangerous  wounds,  from  which  three 
died. 

Minister  Egan  at  once  reported  the  indignity  to  the 
government  at  Washington.  The  attack  on  sailors 
wearing  the  uniform  of  the  United  States  was  regarded 


310  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

in  Washington  as  a  national  insult,  and  redress  was 
firmly  but  courteously  demanded.  The  provisional 
authorities  in  Chile  not  only  refused  satisfaction,  but 
also  declined  to  grant  safe-conduct  to  the  men  who  had 
been  assaulted,  and  demanded  their  surrender  on  the 
ground  that  they  were  criminals. 

The  government  of  the  United  States,  in  reply,  took 
vigorous  measures  by  sending  the  Yorktown  and  the 
Boston  to  strengthen  the  demand  for  satisfaction.  The 
reply  of  the  Chilean  minister  had  been  couched  in  lan- 
guage so  offensive  that  no  answer  was  returned.  On 
the  appearance  of  the  men-of-war,  however,  President 
Montt  directed  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  to  with- 
draw the  offensive  note  and  to  tender  apologies  ;»and 
compensation  was  also  made  to  the  injured  men  and 
the  families  of  the  killed.  Thus  the  demands  of  our 
government  were  satisfactorily  complied  with. 

Chile  has  not  yet  recovered  from  the  effects  of  this 
disastrous  revolution.  Her  foreign  credit,  previously, 
and  still,  perhaps,  higher  than  that  enjoyed  by  any 
other  South  American  republic,  received  a  rude  and 
almost  paralyzing  shock. 

During  these  later  years  the  government  has  been 
administered  with  the  utmost  firmness,  regularity,  and 
wisdom.  The  influence  of  the  presidents  has  been 
strong  for  the  reform  of  abuses,  for  the  advancement 
of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  and  for  the  promotion 
of  everything  which  could  tend  to  increase  the  pros- 
perity of  the  country.  There  is  every  prospect  that 
before  many  years  have  passed  Chile  will  again  take 
her  place  as  the  most  conservative,  prosperous,  and 
advanced  of  the  South  American  republics. 


312  THE   SOUTH.  AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

AN  ENTERPRISING   REPUBLIC. 

ONE  of  the  first  evidences  of  the  enterprise  and 
public  spirit  of  the  people  of  Chile  is  the  number  and 
character  of  their  railroads.  It  comes  as  natural  to  a 
Chilean  to  count  on  a  railroad  for  transportation  of  his 
produce  as  it  does  for  a  Bolivian  Indian  to  look  to  a 
mule. 

Beginning  in  the  north,  there  is  a  railroad  from 
Arica  to  Tacna,  and  one  from  Pisagua  through  the 
nitrate  region  to  Iquique.  This  system  is  known  as 
the  Nitrate  Railways,  and  was  largely  owned  by  Colonel 
North,  the  nitrate  king,  and  the  corporations  in  which 
he  had  interests. 

Another  railroad,  which  will  be  world  famous  when 
completed,  is  the  Trans-Andine  to  Buenos  Aires. 
When  the  tunnel  through  the  Cordilleras  is  finished, 
the  road  will  connect  Valparaiso  with  Mendoza  in  the 
Argentine  Republic,  and  thence  with  Buenos  Aires. 
The  tunnel  is  a  most  difficult  piece  of  engineering, 
and  much  work  remains  to  be  done.  The  Chileans 
will  build  it,  beyond  a  doubt,  but  their  unfortunate 
revolution  delayed  the  work,  and  we  cannot  expect 
to  hear  of  its  completion  as  soon  as  we  otherwise 
might. 

The  ports  of  Chile,  excepting  Coquimbo  and  Tal- 
cahuano,  are  all  open  roadsteads.  Valparaiso,  the 
largest  seaport,  was  until  recently  open  to  the  south- 
ward, and  often  had  its  shipping  swamped  at  its  moor- 
ings or  piled  up  on  the  rocks,  under  the  fierce  wintry 


AN    ENTERPRISING    REPUBLIC.  313 

gales  called  northers;  but  artificial  docks  have  been 
constructed,  and  the  conditions  are  now  vastly  im- 
proved. In  all  other  ports  the  surf  rolls  tremendously ; 
all  cargoes  have  to  be  hoisted  out  into  lighters,  and 
then  to  the  piers,  and  oftentimes  it  is  impossible 
either  to  discharge  or  to  receive  them,  owing  to  the 
violent  motion  of  the  ships. 

Chile  is  divided  into  twenty-two  provinces,  and  these 
again  are  cut  up  into  seventy-two  departments,  to  say 
nothing  of  some  odd  territories.  Each  department  is 
entitled  to  a  deputy  for  every  20,000  persons.  Each 
province  is  entitled  to  one  senator,  and,  in  addition,  an 
extra  one  for  every  three  deputies  elected  within  its 
boundaries. 

The  country  is  rich  in  both  mineral  and  agricultural 
products.  The  northern  provinces  contain  untold 
wealth  in  mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  besides 
manganese,  iron,  antimony,  bismuth,  and  sulphur.  In 
the  south  are  inexhaustible  beds  of  coal  that  is  found  to 
answer  for  steam  and  domestic  purposes.  But  it  is  in 
copper  and  silver  that  Chile  stands  preeminent.  The 
province  of  Atacama  is  especially  rich  in  these  metals; 
and  the  croppings  which  render  it  famous  are  from  the 
same  formation  which  extends  throughout  northwestern 
Bolivia,  and  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca.  Most 
of  the  copper  is  sent  to  England  and  France,  and  the 
value  of  the  annual  export  is  fully  $5,000,000. 

The  true  source,  however,  of  Chile's  wealth  and 
excellent  credit  is  to  be  found  in  the  nitrate  works  of 
the  north.  The  vast  desert,  once  considered  only  a 
worthless  waste,  is  now  regarded  as  a  great  natural 
chemical  laboratory;  for  here  various  kinds  of  salts 


314 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


have  been  deposited  in  immense  quantities.  The  value 
of  the  fertilizing  product  derived  from  the  nitrate  of 
soda  deposits  is  almost  beyond  computation. 

The  deposits  of  nitrate  are  situated  in  the  desert 
just  below  the  surface,  in  the  old  dried-up  lake  beds. 
On  the  sides  of  these,  the  richest  beds  are  found. 
They  are  detected  by  fissures  in  the  surface  and  by 


A   NITRATE    BED  AFTER    EXPLOSIONS. 


small,  natural  holes,  caused  probably  by  the  action  of 
water  at  some  period  of  the  formation.  They  vary  in 
richness ;  those  near  Antofagasta  contain  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  per  cent  of  nitrate,  those  of  Tarapaca  as 
much  as  seventy  per  cent.  The  beds  have  been  pre- 
served in  their  present  condition  for  ages,  because  of 
the  fact  that  rain  seldom  falls  on  this  part  of  the  coast. 
Moisture  would  dissolve  and  destroy  the  product. 


AN    ENTERPRISING    REPUBLIC.  315 

Blasting  powder  is  put  under  the  raw  nitrate,  and 
the  ground  is  thus  broken  up  for  a  considerable  distance. 
Then  the  nitrate  is  separated  from  the  rock  and  rubbish, 
and  loaded  into  sheet-iron  mule  carts,  in  which  it  is  trans- 
ported to  the  crushing  mills.  It  is  then  bruised  between 
rollers,  dissolved  and  deposited  in  tanks,  crystallized 
in  vats,  and  packed  in  sacks  for  transportation.  In  the 
Tarapaca  fields  alone  over  13,000  men  find  employment. 

The  export  of  nitrate  of  soda  annually  amounts  in 
weight  to  more  than  20,000,000  Spanish  quintals,  of 
100  pounds  each.  This  is  valued  at  130,000,000,  and 
the  state  receives  from  this  export  an  amount  exceeding 
all  the  general  import  duties. 

The  great  Rainless  Desert  has  been  described  thus : 
"In  sailing  northward  from  Valparaiso  along  the 
Chilean  coast,  the  traveler  is  confronted  with  a  stu- 
pendous natural  phenomenon.  He  enters  a  rainless 
zone,  without  vegetation  or  resources  for  sustaining 
human  life.  At  Coquimbo,  the  first  anchorage  in  the 
voyage  from  Valparaiso,  he  is  well  within  the  southern 
edge  of  this  arid  district.  Thence  for  over  2000  miles 
he  is  to  follow  a  mountainous  coast  where  rain  is  vir- 
tually unknown.  This  zone  extends  inland  to  the  slope 
of  the  Andes,  and  varies  in  width  from  twenty  to  eighty 
miles.  It  includes  one-third  of  the  Chilean  seaboard, 
and  the  entire  coast  of  Peru  to  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil. 
There  the  seaboard  Sahara  ends  abruptly  with  the  sharp- 
est possible  transition  from  bleak  mountain  headlands 
to  a  coast  clad  with  verdure  and  nourished  by  a  vapor- 
laden  atmosphere." 

The  agricultural  products  and  possibilities  of  Chile 
are  enormous.  Twenty-one  million  bushels  of  wheat 


316 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


are  produced  yearly,  and  24,000,000  gallons  of  wine. 
The  wheat  is  fine  in  appearance,  with  long  stalk  and 
large  grain,  and  makes  good  flour;  but,  like  the  grain 
of  the  Argentine,  it  lacks  something  to  make  it  keep 
well  in  warm  weather.  Still,  Chilean  flour  commands 
a  high  price  on  all  the  west  coast. 


NITRATE   READY   FOR   SHIPMENT. 


The  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  of  Chile  are  of  the  very 
best.  No  money  was  spared  by  the  rich  farmers  in 
importing  the  finest-bred  animals  of  each  species;  and 
the  result  has  been  a  magnificent  breed  of  working,  car- 
riage, and  road  animals,  cattle  for  beef  and  dairy  pur- 
poses, and  sheep. 

Referring  to  sheep  farming  in  South  America,  Mr. 
F.  G.  Carpenter,  in  an  article  in  the  Atlanta  Consti- 
tution, says:  — 


AN    ENTERPRISING    REPUBLIC.  317 

"  Sheep  farming  has  now  become  the  great  industry 
of  this  part  of  the  world.  The  management  of  one  of 
these  large  sheep  farms  is  interesting.  Take  that  of 
the  company  which  has  2,500,000  acres  in  Tierra  del 
Fuego.  Its  100,000  sheep  are  divided  up  into  flocks 
of  2000  each.  Each  flock  has  a  pasture  tract  about  six 
miles  square  allotted  to  it.  This  is  just  the  size  of 
many  of  our  American  townships,  and  if  you  will 
imagine  a  township  as  one  field,  you  will  have  an  idea 
of  the  ordinary  Tierra  del  Fuego  pasture.  This,  to 
many  of  our  farmers,  would  seem  a  large  amount  of 
land  for  this  number  of  sheep,  but  the  grass  here  is 
short,  and  from  two  to  three  acres  of  pasture  are  required 
for  each  sheep. 

"Every  flock  has  its  own  shepherd,  who  watches  the 
sheep  on  horseback.  He  has  a  number  of  dogs  which 
he  so  trains  that  they  will  obey  his  signs.  Most  of  the 
dogs  are  Scotch  collies,  which  are  very  intelligent  and 
understand  their  masters  almost  as  well  as  though  they 
could  understand  a  language.  The  shepherds  are  usu- 
ally Scotchmen,  who  come  here  on  five-year  contracts,  at 
from  $25  to  $35  in  gold  a  month,  with  the  understanding 
that  they  are  to  have  meat,  fuel,  and  houses  free.  The 
meat  is  mutton,  the  fuel  they  cut  themselves,  and  their 
houses  are  little  two-  or  three-room  shanties  scattered 
over  the  farm.  They  do  not  have  very  hard  work  for 
most  of  the  year.  They  have  to  feed  the  sheep.  This 
is  not  hard,  for  all  the  feeding  that  the  sheep  get  is 
from  the  pasture.  The  grass  is  always  green  on  the 
Magellans,  and  the  sheep  can  graze  in  Tierra  del  Fuego 
all  the  year  round." 

The  Chileans  are  the  most  active  commercial  nation 


318  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

in  South  America,  and  are  shaping  the  industrial  for- 
tunes of  the  west  coast.  For  this  reason  Europe  recog- 
nizes the  importance  of  cultivating  the  closest  possible 
relations  with  them.  The  United  States  has  not  mani- 
fested the  interest  it  should  have  done  in  the  wonderful 
development  of  Chilean  industries  and  political  power. 
The  commerce  of  Chile  with  the  United  States  is 
very  limited,  and  varies  annually  from  $5,000,000  to 
$6,000,000,  which  is  almost  equally  divided  between 
imports  and  exports. 

Of  all  the  nations  in  South  America,  Chile  has  the 
deepest  affection  and  the  noblest  enthusiasm  for  its 
flag.  The  Chileans  possess  an  intense  love  of  country. 
They  are  proud  of  their  maritime  supremacy,  and  of  the 
achievements  in  war  on  land  and  sea.  The  victorious 
war  with  Peru  is  a  heroic  period,  which  feeds  both  an 
exalted  loyalty  and  a  strong  national  pride.  Monu- 
ments to  admirals  and  generals  are  seen  in  the  streets 
and  plazas  of  the  cities.  There  is  hardly  a  village 
where  prints  and  photographs  of  the  naval  fight  at 
Iquique  cannot  be  found  in  the  shop  windows. 

In  educational  matters  Chile  is  far  in  advance  of  her 
sister  republics.  There  are  over  1000  schools,  a  nor- 
mal school,  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  lyceums, 
and  colleges.  The  schools  are  now  of  a  high  grade; 
many  teachers  have  been  brought  from  Europe  and  are 
employed  at  large  salaries  ;  and  the  government  takes 
great  interest  in  all  educational  matters.  There  are  fine 
public  libraries  in  the  larger  cities,  and  a  national  li- 
brary of  70,000  printed  and  25,000  manuscript  volumes. 

It  is  seldom  that  you  find  in  Chile  a  lady  who  cannot 
converse  fluently  in  at  least  one  foreign  language,  and 


AN    ENTERPRISING    REPUBLIC.  319 

some  can  speak  two  or  three  languages  besides  their 
own.  The  fashions  of  Paris  reach  Santiago  as  soon  as 
they  reach  New  York,  and  the  alameda  and  parks  of 
Santiago  are  as  brilliant  of  an  afternoon  as  Rotten  Row 
in  London  or  Central  Park  in  New  York.  The  highest 
degree  of  luxury  is  demanded  by  all  who  can  afford  it, 
and  they  will  buy  the  best  they  can  obtain,  no  matter 
where  it  comes  from,  or  what  it  costs. 

There  are  more  comforts  among  the  people  of  Chile 
than  elsewhere  on  the  continent;  and  a  higher  degree 
of  taste  is  shown  in  the  houses  of  the  residents,  and 
in  the  articles  offered  for  sale  in  the  shops.  This 
is  largely  owing  to  the  example  of  the  large  foreign 
population.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Trumbull,  who  lived  in 
Chile  forty-five  years,  said  that  he  had  noticed  a  marked 
change  in  this  respect  within  the  last  decade. 

Valparaiso  is  a  bustling  city,  with  a  population  of 
120,000.  It  was  originally  built  on  the  steep  hillsides 
overlooking  the  harbor,  but  the  modern  town  follows 
the  winding  shore,  where  the  narrow  margin  has  been 
greatly  extended  by  ground  reclaimed  from  the  sea. 
Its  curving  streets  and  irregular  outlines  offer  a  refresh- 
ing contrast  to  the  checkerboard  squares  of  the  newer 
Spanish-American  cities. 

The  modern  town  is  adorned  with  monuments  and 
statues,  wherever  a  plaza  or  a  cluster  of  trees  offers  an 
opportunity  for  patriotic  memorials.  The  chief  attrac- 
tion of  Valparaiso  is  the  climate,  which  is  tempered  by 
ocean  and  aerial  currents  from  the  Antarctic.  The 
winters  are  about  as  warm  as  those  of  corresponding 
latitudes  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  but  the  summer  heats 
are  from  eight  to  ten  degrees  lower. 


320  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

Mr.  Curtis,  in  his  Spanish- American  Republics,  says 
that:  "The  oddest  thing  to  be  seen  in  Valparaiso  is  the 
female  street-car  conductors.  The  street-car  managers 
of  Chile  have  added  another  occupation  to  the  list  of 
those  in  which  women  may  engage.  The  experiment 
was  first  tried  during  the  war  with  Peru,  when  all  the 
able-bodied  men  were  sent  to  the  army,  and  it  proved  so 
successful  that  their  employment  has  become  perma- 
nent, to  the  advantage,  it  is  said,  of  the  companies,  the 
women,  and  the  public.  The  first  impression  one  forms 
of  a  woman  with  a  bell-punch  taking  up  fares  is  not 
favorable;  but  the  stranger  soon  becomes  accustomed 
to  this  as  to  all  other  novelties,  and  concludes  that  it 
is  not  such  a  bad  idea  after  all.  The  street-cars  are 
double-deckers,  with  seats  upon  the  roof  as  well  as 
within,  and  the  conductor  occupies  a  perch  on  the  rear 
platform,  taking  the  fare  as  the  passenger  enters. 

"The  conductors,  or  conductoresses,  are  usually 
young,  and  sometimes  quite  pretty,  being  commonly  of 
the  mixed  race  —  of  Spanish  and  Indian  blood.  They 
wear  a  neat  uniform  of  blue  flannel,  with  a  jaunty 
Panama  hat,  and  a  many-pocketed  white  pinafore, 
reaching  from  the  breast  to  the  ankles,  and  trimmed 
with  dainty  frills.  In  these  pockets  they  carry  small 
change  and  tickets ;  while,  hanging  to  a  strap  over  the 
shoulders,  is  a  little  shopping-bag  in  which  is  a  lunch, 
a  pocket-handkerchief,  and  surplus  money  and  tickets. 
Each  passenger,  when  paying  his  fare,  receives  a  yellow 
paper  ticket,  numbered,  which  he  is  expected  to  destroy. 
The  girls  are  charged  with  so  many  tickets,  and  when 
they  report  at  headquarters  are  expected  to  return 
money  for  all  that  are  missing,  any  deficit  being  de- 


AN    ENTERPRISING    REPUBLIC. 


321 


A  STREET   CAR. 


ducted  from  their  wages,  which  are  twenty-five  dollars 
per  month." 

Mr.  Curtis  also  says :  "  The  women  of  Chile  are  not 
so  pretty  as  their  sisters  in  Peru.  They  are  generally 
larger  in  feature  and  figure,  have  not  the  dainty  feet 
and  supple  grace  of  the  Lima  belles.  In  Valparaiso, 
half  the  ladies  are  of  the  Saxon  type,  and  blond  hair 
looks  grateful  when  one  has  seen  nothing  but  midnight 
tresses  for  months.  Here,  too,  modern  costumes  are 
worn  far  more  generally  than  in  other  South  American 
countries,  and  the  shops  are  full  of  Paris  bonnets. 
But  the  black  manta,  with  its  fringe  of  lace,  is  still 
common  enough  to  be  considered  the  costume  of  the 
country,  and  is  always  worn  to  mass  in  the  morning. 
The  manta  is  becoming  to  almost  everybody." 

Another  oddity  of  Valparaiso  is  the  milk  stations. 
Every  few  blocks  along  all  but  the  principal  business 
streets  is  a  platform  where  a  cow  is  tied,  and  a  dairy- 


322  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

maid  stands  ready  to  milk  to  order  whenever  a  customer 
calls.  On  a  table  near  by  are  found  measures,  cans, 
glasses,  and  often  a  bottle  6f  brandy,  so  that  a  thirsty 
man  can  mix  a  glass  of  punch  if  he  chooses.  In  the 
morning  these  stands  are  surrounded  by  servants  from 
the  aristocratic  houses,  women  and  children  with  cups 
and  buckets,  awaiting  their  turn;  and  as  fast  as  one 
cow  is  exhausted  another  is  driven  upon  the  platform. 

Santiago,  the  Chilean  capital,  must  needs  be  an  im- 
posing city,  in  order  to  be  worthy  of  its  scenic  setting. 
It  is  in  the  center  of  a  lovely  valley,  encompassed  by 
lofty  mountains.  With  so  grand  and  inspiring  a  view 
always  to  be  seen  from  the  alameda  and  from  the 
rocky  hill  of  Santa  Lucia,  Santiago  has  not  neglected 
its  opportunities.  It  is  a  handsome  city,  with  fine 
parks,  striking  architectural  effects  in  its  public  build- 
ings and  churches,  and  orderly,  well-kept  streets.  The 
population  of  the  city  ranges  between  225,000  and 
250,000. 

As  the  telephone  is  very  popular  in  Santiago,  the 
principal  streets  of  the  town  are  planted  with  tall, 
white  posts  and  crossbars  carrying  innumerable  wires, 
which  do  not  add  to  their  beauty.  However,  fine  Bel- 
gian pavements  and  electric  lights  make  the  streets 
attractive.  As  for  the  houses,  the  majority  are  built 
of  adobe,  or  sun-dried  bricks,  with  the  second  story,  if 
there  be  one,  of  Guayaquil  cane;  and  the  whole  is 
plastered  over  with  mud  and  stucco,  and  colored  and 
ornamented  in  a  greater  or  less  degree.  Recently 
some  three-story  houses  have  been  erected.  Many  of 
the  private  houses  in  Santiago  are  of  large  proportions, 
covering  400  or  500  square  feet  of  ground,  with  accom- 


AN    ENTERPRISING    REPUBLIC. 


323 


modation  for  three  generations  of  a  family,  and  dining 
rooms  where  fifty  or  sixty  people  can  sit  at  ease. 

From  Santiago  south  to  Concepcion  the  country  is 
a  succession  of  rich  farms,  with  an  occasional  sandy 
waste,  due  simply  to  a  lack  of  means  of  irrigation,  for 


THE   RAILROAD   STATION   AT   SANTIAGO. 


there  are  here  no  dews  and  no  rivers,  except  during  the 
winter.  The  soil  is  usually  deep  and  fertile,  and 
wherever  water  can  be  procured  fine  crops  are  grown. 
Concepcion  was  rebuilt  on  a  new  site  in  the  valley 
of  Mocha,  after  the  earthquake  of  1730.  In  1835  the 
city  was  again  destroyed  by  a  great  earthquake  and  tidal 


324  THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

wave.  The  wave  swept  up  the  bay,  destroyed  the 
shipping  in  the  harbor,  and,  leaping  over  the  land, 
flooded  the  country  for  miles  around,  ruining  every- 
thing in  its  path.  A  line  of  debris  alone  marked  the 
location  of  the  rows  of  houses  that  had  been  the  city. 

Concepcion  now  numbers  over  25,000  people,  and 
promises  to  be  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Chile.  It  has 
an  active  and  energetic  class  of  inhabitants.  The  three 
main  streets  running  parallel  with  each  other  are  well 
paved,  and  lined  with  business  houses.  It  has  a  fine 
large  railway  depot,  tramways,  telegraphs,  telephones, 
and  electric  lights.  The  city  is  situated  on  a  charming 
spot  at  the  head  of  Concepcion  Bay,  twenty  minutes 
by  rail  from  Talcahuano,  its  port.  This  is  one  of  the 
best  seaports  in  Chile,  and  bids  fair  to  become  a  for- 
midable rival  of  Valparaiso. 

Tome  and  Penco  are  also  ports  of  Concepcion.  From 
them  are  exported  vast  quantities  of  wheat,  wool, 
wines,  barley,  oats,  linseed,  and  honey.  The  trans- 
portation facilities  are  excellent.  Railways  connect 
these  ports  with  the  capital  and  towns  to  the  south, 
and  the  steamers  of  five  European  lines  stop  there  regu- 
larly on  their  trips  north. 

Farther  south,  around  the  old  Araucanian  cities,  are 
the  vast  wheat  fields  of  the  country.  Here  rains  are 
abundant,  and  over  the  low,  undulating  hills  the  yellow 
grain  waves  in  billowy  oceans.  Here  also  range  large 
herds  of  cattle.  Angol,  Traiguen,  and  Osorno  are  great 
wheat  centers;  and  at  the  latter  place  there  are  exten- 
sive tracts  of  valuable  timber.  In  Valdivia  tanneries 
have  long  been  established,  and  tanned  bark  is  an 
important  article  of  commerce. 


AN    ENTERPRISING    REPUBLIC.  325 

The  forests  of  southern  Chile  have  a  certain  beauty 
peculiar  to  themselves,  the  foliage  being  of  great  variety 
and  exquisite  coloring.  The  trees  grow  to  a  consider- 
able height,  and  are  intertwined  with  vines  and  creepers. 
One  of  these  parasites  is  called  "angel's  hair,"  and 
hangs  from  the  trees  like  threads  of  lace.  There  is  an 
undergrowth  of  ferns,  bamboos,  shrubs,  and  canes,  the 
latter  attaining  a  height  sufficient  to  interlace  the  tree- 
tops  and  form  roofs  of  green  over  the  forest  avenues. 

Many  kinds  of  sweet-scented  and  beautiful  flowering 
plants  and  rose  bushes  flourish,  particularly  along  the 
rivers.  Tropical  plants,  such  as  sugar-cane,  pineapples, 
bananas,  and  sweet  potatoes,  grow  well  enough  in  the 
northern  states.  There  are  also  many  wild  plants 
peculiar  to  Chile.  In  the  southern  section  maize  and 
all  the  cereals  grow.  Here  the  Indians  cultivated 
Indian  corn  and  species  of  rye  and  barley  before  the 
arrival  of  the  Spaniards.  The  potato  seems  to  have 
found  in  Chile  its  native  soil;  two  species  of  it,  with 
over  thirty  varieties,  grow  wild. 

Chile  is  singularly  free  from  ferocious  animals  and 
poisonous  reptiles.  There  are  eleven  species  of  reptiles, 
live  of  the  lizard  order,  four  of  the  snake  kind,  and 
one  each  of  frogs  and  toads.  The  serpents  are  per- 
fectly harmless.  In  the  timbered  districts  of  the  south 
the  sportsman  finds  plenty  of  game,  but  not  of  the  sav- 
age kind.  Pumas,  or  Chile  lions,  are  occasionally  met 
with  in  the  Andes ;  on  the  heights  is  found  the  wild 
guanaco,  which  somewhat  resembles  the  llama;  and  a 
small  silver  fox  and  a  peculiar  bastard  chinchilla 
abound  in  the  south.  But  there  are  no  jaguars  or 
wolves,  such  as  infest  the  neighboring  states. 


326 


THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 


There  are  125  rivers  in  Chile,  nearly  half  of  which 
flow  directly  into  the  sea.  They  form  a  vast  natural 
system  of  irrigation,  bringing  the  melting  snows  of  the 
mountains  down  into  the  valleys.  Eight  or  ten  of 
them  are  navigable  for  some  distance,  among  them  the 
Maule  and  the  Biobio,  the  latter  being  over  two  miles 


PUNTA  ARENAS,  THE   SOUTHERNMOST  TOWN    IN  AMERICA. 

in  breadth.  As  Chile  really  forms  the  western  slope 
of  the  Andes,  these  rivers  are  all  short  and  rapid,  the 
waters  are  shallow  and  broad,  the  banks  low,  the  beds 
rocky;  and  their  waters  render  irrigation  a  simple 
matter. 

Chile  lays  claim  to  more  than  one  hundred  islands, 
about  half  of  which  are  well  settled  and  possess  excel- 


FOREIGN   COLONIAL    POSSESSIONS.  327 

lent  harbors.  Chiloe,  the  most  important  of  the  islands, 
is  a  beautiful  spot.  It  has  an  exceedingly  rich  soil,  a 
moist  atmosphere,  and  a  spring-like  temperature,  where 
frost  or  snow  is  seldom  known.  Fine  crops  of  wheat, 
barley,  potatoes,  and  other  grains  and  vegetables  are 
raised.  The  fertile  land  is  covered  with  large  herds  of 
domestic  cattle,  and  the  waters  are  full  of  fish.  But 
to  the  south,  the  islands  for  the  most  part  are  moun- 
tainous, and  the  climate  is  cold,  wet,  and  disagreeable. 
The  Indians  that  roam  over  the  islands  of  the  extreme 
south  are  a  miserable  lot  of  human  beings. 

The  island  Juan  Fernandez,  which  has  become 
famous  as  the  traditional  home  of  Robinson  Crusoe, 
also  belongs  to  Chile.  It  lies  about  400  miles  from 
the  coast,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  number  of  smaller 
islands.  They  were  first  discovered  in  1563  by  Juan 
Fernandez,  a  Spanish  navigator  who  made  frequent 
voyages  along  the  South  American  coast.  In  time 
they  became  the  favorite  resort  of  South  Sea  pirates. 
In  the  early  part  of-  the  present  century  political  exiles 
were  banished  to  these  islands;  but  within  recent  years 
the  Chilean  government  has  tried  to  colonize  them  with 
a  better  class  of  citizens. 


CHAPTER  XL. 
FOREIGN   COLONIAL   POSSESSIONS. 

THE  three  Guianas  remain  as  the  only  evidence  of 
many  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  British,  the  French, 
and  the  Dutch  to  gain  a  foothold  on  the  South  American 


328  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

continent.  They  are  situated  to  the  north  of  Brazil 
and  to  the  east  of  Venezuela,  and  lie  side  by  side,  with 
British  Guiana  on  the  west,  French  Guiana  on  the  east, 
and  Dutch  Guiana  in  the  center.  Great  Britain  has 
recently  secured  a  large  slice  of  Venezuelan  territory, 
and  France  is  still  laying  claim  to  territory  in  Brazil. 
The  Dutch  are  said  to  have  made  the  first  settlement 
in  this  region  as  early  as  1580. 

This  part  of  South  America  should  have  a  peculiar 
interest  to  New  Englariders,  for  it  came  near  being  the 
home  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers.  Before  they  sailed  from 
Holland  in  the  Mayflower,  in  1620,  inducements  were 
offered  them  by  the  Dutch  to  settle  on  their  lands  in 
South  America.  The  project  was  at  first  entertained, 
but  it  was  finally  abandoned. 

Georgetown,  the  capital  of  British  Guiana,  "the 
Venice  of  the  West  Indies,"  as  it  has  been  called,  is 
certainly  a  strange  place,  and  one  calculated  to  excite 
the  interest  and  admiration  of  every  one.  The  streets 
are  rectangular,  and  the  city  is  intersected  in  all  direc- 
tions by  open  canals  and  drains,  which  are  crossed  by 
innumerable  bridges. 

The  city,  which  lies  beneath  the  level  of  the  sea  at 
spring  tides,  is  defended  from  the  waves  of  the  Atlantic 
by  a  granite  breakwater  two  miles  long,  stretching  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Demerara  River  to  Plantation  Kitty 
on  the  east  coast.  Great  granite  groins  run  out  from 
the  breakwater  into  the  sea,  every  sixty  yards  or  so,  to 
break  the  force  of  the  waves.  The  top  of  this  wall, 
which  is  twenty-five  feet  wide,  is  used  in  the  after- 
noons and  evenings  as  a  promenade  and  health  resort. 
The  construction  of  the  wall  was  begun  in  1858,  and 


FOREIGN   COLONIAL   POSSESSIONS.  329 

was  not  completed  until  1892.  It  was  built  principally 
by  convict  labor,  and  all  the  granite  was  brought  from 
a  penal  settlement  on  the  Massaruni  River. 

Mr.  Henry  Kirke,  for  many  years  in  charge  of  British 
interests  in  this  colony,  says :  "  The  principal  recollec- 
tions that  one  has  of  British  Guiana  are  of  its  heat  and 
dampness.  It  is  one  of  the  hottest  places  in  the  world ; 
that  is,  as  regards  mean  temperature  all  the  year  round, 
night  and  day.  The  temperature  is  never  excessive,  as 
in  some  parts  of  India  and  Africa,  in  the  summer,  but 
there  is  no  compensation  in  the  shape  of  a  cool  season, 
such  as  those  places  enjoy  in  the  winter.  Without 
change,  the  shade  temperature  remains  the  same  for 
weeks  and  months,  varying  from  82°  to  88°. 

"  As  to  rain,  I  cannot  say  that  it  always  rains,  but  I 
will  say  that  there  are  very  few  days  in  the  year  when 
it  does  not  rain  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  The 
rainfall  of  the  colony  on  the  coast  varies  from  90  to  140 
inches,  so  it  cannot  be  called  a  dry  country,  although 
droughts  lasting  for  several  months  occasionally  occur. 
One  thing  is  satisfactory.  When  it  does  rain  there  is 
no  doubt  about  it;  the  water  comes  down  with  a  rush 
and  a  pelt,  which  leaves  no  anxiety  in  the  mind  as  to 
whether  it  is  raining  or  not." 

British  Guiana  ought  to  be  a  paradise  for  the  poor 
inhabitants.  No  fires  are  required,  except  for  cooking, 
and  clothes  are  used  only  for  decency  or  ornament. 
Any  shanty  which  will  keep  off  the  rain  is  a  sufficient 
dwelling;  walls  are  a  superfluity,  as  they  only  shut  out 
the  cooling  sea  breeze.  The  earth,  under  the  most 
simple  cultivation,  produces  food  in  abundance;  and  a 
bunch  of  plantains,  which  will  keep  a  man  in  food  for 


330  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

a  week,  can  be  bought  for  a  shilling  or  a  quarter  of 
a  dollar. 

The  gold  industry  of  the  colony  has  not  realized  thus 
far  the  expectations  of  the  colonists.  It  is  true  that 
the  exports  of  gold  have  risen  from  250  ounces,  in  1884, 
to  about  127,000  ounces,  in  1897,  but  the  increase 
during  the  last  three  years  has  not  been  large.  The 
results  of  quartz-crushing  at  the  Kanaimapo  and  Barima 
mines  have  not  been  sufficient  to  attract  European  capi- 
talists. That  gold  exists  in  paying  quantities  over  a 
large  area  of  the  colony  no  one  can  doubt ;  but  it  is  a 
country  where  prospecting  is  carried  on  with  great  diffi- 
culty, owing  to  the  dense  forests  with  which  it  is  cov- 
ered. It  may  be  that  the  richest  deposits  have,  so  far, 
evaded  the  quest  of  the  miner. 

Diamonds  have  been  found  accidentally  in  the  search 
for  gold.  It  is  possible  that  large  deposits  of  these 
precious  stones  may  sometime  be  discovered,  seeing  that 
Guiana  resembles,  in  geological  formation,  the  neigh- 
boring country  of  Brazil,  which  was  formerly  renowned 
for  its  diamonds. 

Dutch  Guiana  is  separated  from  the  British  colony 
on  the  west  by  the  river  Corentyn,  and  from  the  French 
colony  on  the  east  by  the  Maroni.  It  is  a  colony  of  the 
Netherlands,  with  a  governor  appointed  by  the  crown 
and  a  colonial  government  acting  under  his  general 
direction. 

Paramaribo,  the  capital  of  Dutch  Guiana,  with  a 
population  of  about  28,000,  is  an  attractive-looking 
place.  It  is  built  upon  a  plateau,  and  has  clean, 
shaded  streets,  large  squares,  a  government  house  sur- 
rounded by  a  beautiful  garden,  and  numerous  canals. 


FOREIGN   COLONIAL   POSSESSIONS.  331 

A  large  portion  of  the  country  is  covered  with  pri- 
meval forests;  but  the  lack  of  labor  and  the  cost  of 
transportation  have  prevented  the  utilization  of  the 
vast  supplies  of  timber  and  cabinet  woods.  These 
wooded  sections  are  chiefly  inhabited  by  bush  negroes, 
who  are  descendants  of  runaway  slaves,  and  are  a  people 
of  an  exceedingly  low  type  of  civilization.  They  still 
retain  some  traces  of  their  former  connection  with 
Christianity,  though  they  are  now  pagans,  and  worship 
idols.  Their  chief  idol  is  Gran  Gado,  or  the  great 
god,  and  next  to  him,  in  the  order  of  greatness,  come 
Ampuka,  the  bush  god,  and  Toni,  the  water  god. 

Gold,  silver,  lead,  and  iron  ores  have  been  discovered 
in  Dutch  Guiana  in  quantities  which  are  beginning  to 
attract  attention.  The  colony  has  a  small  trade  in 
sugar  and  cocoa,  and  a  larger  trade  in  bananas,  yams, 
and  sweet  potatoes;  but  the  imports  vastly  outmeasure 
the  exports,  and  the  country  is  not  of  great  interest  to 
the  outside  world. 

French  Guiana  is  also  low  and  swampy,  and  has 
several  extensive  peat-bogs,  on  which  large  drafts  are 
being  made  for  fuel.  The  population  consists  of  a  few 
pure  whites,  negroes  from  Africa,  mulattoes,  coolies,  a 
decreasing  number  of  Indians,  convicts  from  France  and 
its  colonies,  and  a  few  Chinese  and  Hindus.  There 
are  few  attractions  to  draw  to  its  shores  immigrants  of 
the  better  class. 

Cayenne,  the  capital,  was  founded  in  1634,  and  has  a 
population  of  about  10,000,  of  whom  4400  are  convicts 
residing  there  on  ticket-of-leave.  There  are  five  smaller 
towns  in  the  colony,  but  none  of  these  is  of  impor- 
tance. The  island  of  La  Mere  off  the  coast,  and 


332  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

directly  opposite  to  Cayenne,  is  reserved  for  the  aged, 
the  infirm,  and  the  convalescent,  but  the  care  they 
receive  in  this  retreat  is  not  of  the  best. 

Two  other  foreign  possessions,  both  in  the  hands  of 
Great  Britain,  remain  to  be  mentioned.  These  are  the 
island  of  Trinidad,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  near 
the  coast  of  Venezuela,  and  the  Falkland  Islands,  lying 
300  miles  east  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  near  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  continent. 

Trinidad  is  really  a  fragment  of  the  continent,  worn 
away  and  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the  action  of 
the  water  of  the  Orinoco  River.  Its  chief  towns  are 
San  Fernando  and  Port-of-Spain.  Port-of-Spain,  with 
about  25,000  inhabitants,  has  a  poor  harbor.  Ships 
have  to  anchor  fully  a  mile  from  the  shore,  and  the 
freight  that  reaches  and  leaves  the  port  has  to  be  trans- 
ported in  lighters. 

The  city  itself  is  not  an  inviting  place,  but  nature 
made  the  island  a  paradise.  It  is  literally  covered  with 
luxuriant  foliage  and  gorgeous  flowers.  The  Botanical 
Gardens,  on  the  outskirts  of  the  town,  contain  nearly 
every  tropical  plant  known.  The  royal  palm  stands 
like  a  guardian  over  all.  Its  leaves,  like  ostrich  plumes, 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  long,  nod  in  the  breeze  with  move- 
ments of  grace  that  no  artificial  thing  can  be  made  to 
imitate.  The  trees  of  this  garden,  and  all  the  forests 
of  the  island,  are  alive  with  monkeys  and  birds  of 
brilliant  plumage. 

Mr.  Curtis,  in  his  book  on  Venezuela,  says:  "The 
most  interesting  place  in  Trinidad  is  the  famous  Pitch 
Lake,  from  which  comes  the  world's  supply  of  asphaltum. 
It  covers  ninety-nine  acres,  and  contains  millions  of 


FOREIGN    COLONIAL   POSSESSIONS. 


333 


tons  of  pitch,  which  never  grows  less  in  amount,  for 
that  taken  out  during  the  day  is  renewed  by  nature 
over  night.  In  the  neighborhood  of  this  Stygian  pool 
the  air  is  heavy  with  the  sickening  odors,  and  the  sur- 
rounding country  is  covered  with  its  overflow,  so  that 
the  earth  is  as  hard  as  the  pavements  of  Washington ; 
but  neither  the  steam  and  fumes  that  arise  from  the 


CABBAGE    PALMS   ON   THE    ISLAND   OF  TRINIDAD. 

pitch  roasting  in  the  sun,  nor  the  asphaltum  in  the  soil, 
seem  to  injure  vegetation ;  for  flowers  and  fruits  actu- 
ally grow  in  the  midst  of  them,  and  pineapples  are  there 
brought  to  the  greatest  perfection.  The  lake  is  a  float- 
ing mass  of  asphaltum,  seamed  by  narrow  channels  of 
clear  water,  with  a  few  straggling  islands  covered  with 
thin,  low  shrubs.  At  the  center,  the  fountain  of  all 
the  foulness,  the  pitch  is  at  boiling  heat,  and  covered 


334  THE   SOUTH    AMERICAN    REPUBLICS. 

with  yellow  and  white  sulphurous  foam,  upon  which 
are  floating  innumerable  bubbles  filled  with  loathsome 
gas." 

The  Pitch  Lake  is  a  mystery  which  scientists  have 
discussed  for  many  years.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  wrote 
the  first  account  of  it  when  he  landed  there,  in  1595, 
on  his  voyage  in  search  of  the  El  Dorado  and  the  land 
of  the  Amazons.  Humboldt  made  an  extensive  study 
of  the  phenomenon,  and  declared  that  the  Pitch  Lake 
is  a  "constantly  aggregating  mass  formed  from  the 
cosmical  gaseous  fluid "  —  which  statement  seems  to 
settle  it. 

The  Falkland  Islands  number  over  100,  but  only 
two,  known  as  East  Falkland  and  West  Falkland,  are 
of  importance.  The  chief  town  and  capital  is  Port 
Stanley  in  East  Falkland.  Its  population  at  the  last 
census  was  694,  and  that  of  the  island  as  a  whole  was 
1789.  The  colonists  are  nearly  all  of  Scotch  descent. 
They  are  industrious  and  prosperous,  and  crime  is 
almost  unknown  among  them.  Scarcely  any  land  is  fit 
for  cultivation;  but  the  pasturage  is  excellent,  and 
sheep  farming  is  the  principal  and  almost  the  only  in- 
dustry. Wool,  sheepskins,  tallow,  and  frozen  mutton 
are  exported,  chiefly  to  England;  and  the  imported 
goods,  for  the  use  of  the  people,  are  received  almost 
entirely  from  England  and  from  Uruguay. 


VOCABULARY. 


KEY :  fat,  fate,  far,  fall,  fast,  fare ;  met,  mete,  her;  pin,  pine ;  not,  note, 
move,  nor;  tub,  mute,  pull;  leisure;  sing;  thin,  then. 


A. 

agouti,  a-go'-ti. 

Alegre,  a-la'-gra. 

Alvarez    Ramon,     al'-va-reth    ra- 

raon'. 

Ainalgro,  a-mal'-gro. 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  a-ma-re'-go  ves- 

po'-che. 

Amparan,  am-par-an'. 
Ampues,  am-po-us'. 
Ampuka,  am-po'-ka. 
Ancota,  an-ko'-ta. 
Andalusia,  an-da-lo'-se-a. 
Andrade,  an-dra'-da. 
Angostura,  an-gos-to'-ra. 
Antioquia,  an-te-5'-k6-a. 
Antofagasta,  an-to-fa-gas'-ta. 
Apurimac,  a-po-re'-mak. 
Aracate,  a-ra-ka'-ta. 
Aragua,  a-ra'-gwa. 
Araucanians,  a-ro-ka'-ni-ans. 
Arequipa,  a-ra-k6'-pa. 
Arica,  a-r6'-ka. 
armadillo,  ar-ma-dil'-l6. 
Artigas,  ar-te'-gas. 
Asturias,  as-to'-re-as. 
Asuncion,  a-son-thg-on'. 
Atacama,  a-ta-ka'-ma. 
Atahualpa,  a-ta-hwal'-pa. 


Augero,  au'-ger-6. 
Avellaneda,  a-va-lya-na'-fha. 
Avila,  a'-ve-la. 
Aymara,  i-ma'-ra. 
Ayolas,  a-yo'-las. 

B. 

Bahia,  ba-e'-a. 
Balmaceda,  bal-ma-tha'-da. 
Barima,  ba-re'-ma. 
Barranquilla,  bar-ran-kel'-ya. 
Belgrano,  bel-gra'-n5. 
Benalcazar,  ba-nal-ca-fliar'. 
Bio  Bio,  be'-o  b6'-o. 
Boa  Vista,  bo'-a  ves'-ta. 
Bogota,  b5-g5-ta'. 
bolas,  b5'-las. 
bombilla,  bom-bil'-ya. 
Bombona,  bom-bo'-na. 
Boyaca,  b5-ya-ka'. 
Breves,  bra'-v6s. 
bucare,  bo-ka'-re. 
Buenos  Aires,  bwa'-nos  I'-ras. 

C. 


Caamafio,  ka-a-ma'-nyo. 
Cabadello,  ka-ba-da'-lyo. 


335 


336 


VOCABULARY. 


Cabral,  ka-bral'. 

Caceres,  ka'-tha-res. 

Cachimayo,  ka-che-ml'-yo. 

Cajarmarca,  ka-ha-mar'-ka. 

Calderdn,  kal-dar-oii'. 

Calicut,  kal'-i-kut. 

Callao,  kal-la'-6. 

Carapero,  kam-pa'-ro. 

Candelaria,  kan-del-a'-re-a. 

Carabobo,  ka-ra-bo'-bo. 

Caracas,  ka-ra'-kas. 

Caran,  ka'-ran'. 

Caras,  ka-ras'. 

Careos    de    Alvear,   ka-ra'os'da 

al-ve-ar'. 

Cariaco,  ka-re-a'-ko. 
Carrasco,  ka-ras'-ko. 
Carrillo,  kar-rel'-yo. 
Carupano,  ka-ro-pa'-no. 
Caseros,  ka-sa'-ros. 
Castilla,  kas-tel'-ya. 
Castio,  kas-te'-o. 
Cataldino,  ka-tal-de'-no. 
Catamarca,  ka-ta'-mar'-ka. 
Cauca,  kou'-ka. 
Caupolican,  kou-po'-le-kan'. 
Cauta,  kou'-ta. 
Cayenne,  kl-yen'. 
Cerro    de    Pasco,     tha'-ro     da 

pas'-ko. 

Cevallos,  tha-val'-yos. 
Chacabuco,  cha-ka-bo'-ko. 
chalets,  sha'-les. 
Charcas,  char'-kas. 
Chiapa,  che-a'-pa. 
Chibchas,  cheb'-chas. 
Chicla,  che-kla'. 
Chiloe,  che-16-a'. 
Chimborazo,  chim-bo-ra'-fho. 
Chiquitos,  che-ke'-tos. 


Chira,  che'-ra. 
Cliolos,  cho'-los. 
Chubut,  cho-bot'. 
Coati,  ko-a'-te. 
Cobija,  ko-be'-ha. 
Collou  Cura,  kol'-yo  ko'-ra. 
Concepcion,  kon-thep-the-6n'. 
Copaiba,  ko-pl'-ba. 
Coquimbo,  ko-kem'-bo. 
Cordilleras,  kor-dil-ya'-raz. 
Cordoba,  kor'-do-ba. 
Correo,  kor-ra'-o. 
Corrientes,  kor-re-en'-tes. 
Costa  Rica,  kos'-ta  re'-ka. 
Cotopaxi,  ko-to-paks'-i. 
Cubagua,  ko-ba'-gwa. 
Cucuta,  kb'-ko'-ta. 
Cuenca,  kwan'-ka. 
Cumana,  ko-ma-na'. 
Curitiba,  ko-re-te'-ba. 
Cuyaba,  ko-ya-ba'. 
Cuzco,  koz'-ko. 

D. 

Daireaux,  di-ro'. 
Dardye,  dard'-ya. 
Davila,  da-ve'-la. 
Daymeric,  dl-mer'-ik. 
Daza,  da'-za. 
Delphin,  del'-fin. 
Demerara,  da-ma- ra'-ra. 
Diego,  de-a'-go. 
Doni  Pedro,  dom  pa'-dro. 

E. 

Egusquiza,  a-gos-ke'-fha. 
El  Chaco,  el  cha'-ko. 
Elzevir,  el'-ze-ver. 


VOCABULARY. 


337 


Ensenada,  en-san-ya'-da. 
Entre  Rios,  en'-tra  re'-os. 
Espajo,  es-pa'-ho. 
Estero,  es-ta'-ro. 
eucalyptus,  eu-ka-lyp'-tus. 

F. 

Fajardo,  fa-har'-do. 
Federmann,  fa'-der-man. 
Flores,  flo'-ras. 
Formosa,  for-mo'-sa. 
Francia,  fran'-se-a. 

G. 

Galicia,  ga-le'-the-a. 
Gamarra,  ga-mar'-ra. 
Garay,  ga-ri'. 
gaucho,  gau'-cho. 
Genoa,  jen'-O-a. 
Gracia,  gra-the-a'. 
Gran  Gado,  gran  ga'-d6. 
Guahiba,  gwa-e'-ba. 
guanaco,  gwa-na'-ko. 
Guarani,  gwa-ra-n6'. 
Guayaquil,  gwi-a-kel'. 
Guayra,  gwi'-ra. 
Guiana,  ge-a'-na. 
Guzman    Blanco,    goth-man' 
blan'-ko. 

H. 

Hatuntaqui,  a-ton-ta'-ke. 
Hernandez,  er-nan'-defh. 
Himalaya,  him-a'-la-ya. 
Hispaniola,  is-pa-n6-o'-la. 
Honda,  on'-da. 
Huascar,  was'-kar. 
Huelva,  wel'-va. 


I. 

Iglesias,  e-gla'-se-as. 
iguana,  e-gwa'-na. 
Independencia,        m-da-pen-den'- 

the-a. 

Iquique,  e-ke'-ka. 
Iquitos,  e-ke'-tos. 
Ishuaia,  is-wa'-e-a. 


J. 


jaguar,  jag'-u-ar'. 

Japura,  zha-po-ra'. 

Javari,  zha-va-re'. 

Joam,  jo-am'. 

Joan,  jo-an'. 

Jose  Padilla,  ho-sa  pa-fhel'  ya. 

Juan,  ho'-an. 

Juana,  ho-an'-na. 

Jujuy,  ho-hwe'. 

Juncal,  hon'-kal. 

junta,  hbn'-ta. 


K. 

Kanaimapo,  ka-ni-ma'-p5. 


La  Cantabaria,  la  kan-ta-ba-re'-a. 

La  Guayra,  la  gwi'-ra. 

La  Paz,  la  path'. 

La  Plata,  la  pla'-ta. 

La  Puerta,  la  pwar'-ta. 

La  Rabida,  la  ra'-be-da. 

La  Raya,  la  ri'-ya. 

La  Rioja,  la  re-6'-ha. 

La  Vela,  la  va'-la. 

Lamar,  la-mar'. 


338 


VOCABULARY. 


Larecaja,  la-ra-ka'-ha. 
Las  Casas,  las  ka'-sas. 
Las  Piedras,  las  pe-a'-dras. 
Las  Vacas,  las  va'-kas. 
Lasada,  la-sa'-da. 
Latzina,  lat-ze'-na. 
Leonora,  la-on-o'-ra. 
Leopoldina,  la-o-pol-de'-na. 
Lepe,  la'-pa. 

Libero  Badaro,  le-ba'-ro  ba-da'-ro. 
Lima,  le'-ma. 
Llai-Llai,  lyi-lyi. 
Llabaya,  lya-ba'-ya. 
llama,  lya'-ma. 
llaneros,  lya'-ner-os. 
llanos,  lya'-nos. 
Lobo,  lo'-bo. 
Loja,  lo'-ha. 
Lopez,  lo'-path. 
Luis  Cordero,  lo-is'  k6r-da'-ro. 
Luis   Saenz   Pefia,  lo-is'   sa-anth' 
pan'-ya. 

M. 

Maceta,  math-a'-ta. 
Macuto,  ma-ko'-to. 
Madero,  ma-da'-ro. 
Maia,  ml'-a. 
Maiquetia,  ml-ka'-te-a. 
Maldonado,  mal-do-na'-do. 
Manaos,  nia-na'-os. 
Manco  Capac,  man-ko'  ka-pak'. 
Mapocho,  ma-po'-cho. 
Maracaybo,  ma-ra-kl'-bo. 
Marajo,  ma-ra'-ho. 
Maranhao,  ma-ran-ya'-o. 
Maroni,  ma-ro'-ne. 
Matto  Grosso,  mat'-to  gros'-so. 
Medellin,  ma-del-yen'. 
Medoya,  ma-do'-ya. 


Mendoza,  men-do'-fha. 
Mestizos,  mas-te'-thos. 
Milan,  me-lan'. 
Minas,  me'-nas. 
Miranda,  me-ran'-da. 
Mita,  me'-ta. 
Mitre,  me-tra'. 
Montero,  mon-ta'-ro. 
Montevideo,  mon'-ta-vid-a'-6. 
Montufar,  rnon-to-far'. 
Morales,  mo-ra'-les. 
Moreno,  mo-ra'-no. 
Moyano,  mo-ya'-no. 
Muerto,  mwer'-to. 
Muiscas,  mo-es'-kas. 

N. 

Nahuel  Huapi,  na-hwel'  ho-a'-pe. 
Narino,  na-re'-no. 
Neuquen,  na-o-ken'. 
Nina,  nen'-ya. 

O. 

Obidos,  o-be'-dos. 

Ojeda,  o-ha'-fha. 

onca,  on'-ka. 

Oroya,  6-ro'-ya. 

Ouro  Prato,  o'-ro  pra'-to. 

Ovilencia,  6-ve-len'-se-a. 

P. 

Pacha,  pa-cha'. 
Paez,  pa-eth'. 
Paita,  pi'-ta. 
Pandi,  pan'-de. 
Para,  pa-ra'. 
Paraguay,  par-a-gwi'. 


VOCABULARY. 


339 


Paramaribo,  par-a-mar'-i-bo. 

Parana,  pa-ra-na'. 

Paranagua,  pa-ra-na'-gwa. 

Parati,  pa-ra'-te. 

Parnahiba,  par-na-he'-ba. 

Paso  del  Molino,  pa' -so  del   mo 

le'-no. 

Pastusos,  pas-to'-sos. 
Paysandu,  p!-san-do'. 
Peguela,  pa-gwa'-la. 
Pellegrini,  pal-ya-gre'-ne. 
Penco,  pan'-ko. 
Pereira,  pp-ra'-ra. 
Perez,  pa   reth. 
Pernambuco,  per-nam-bb'-ko. 
Petare,  pa-ta'-ra. 
Pezet,  pa-that'. 
Pichincha,  pe-chen'-cha. 
Pico,  pe'-ko. 
Pieroia,  pe-a-ro'-la. 
Pinta,  pgn'-ta. 
Pinzon,  pen-thon'. 
Pio  Tristan,  pe'-o  tris-tan'. 
Pisagiia,  pe-sa'-gwa. 
Piura,  pe-O'-ra. 
Pizarro,  pi-za'-ro. 
Portobello,  p6r-to-bal'-y5. 
Potosi,  po-tO-se'. 
Prainha,  pra-en'-ya. 
Pucura,  po-ko'-ra. 
Punta,  pb'n'-ta. 
Purus,  po-ros'. 

Q 

Quesada,  ka-sa'-fha. 
Quevedo,  ka-va'-fho. 
Quichua,  kech'-wu. 
quina,  ke'-na. 
Quito,  ke'-to. 


R. 

Rada,  ra'-da. 

Rafael  Maroto,  ra-fa-el'  ma-ro'-to. 

Recife,  ra-se'-fe. 

Ricardo  Palma,re-kar'-tho  pal'-ma. 

Rimac,  re'-mak. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  re'-6  da  ha-nay '-ro. 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  re'-6  gran'-da 

do  sol. 

Roca,  ro'-ka. 

Rocafuerte,  ro'-ka-fwer'-ta. 
Rosario,  ro-sa'-re-o. 
Rosas,  ro'-sas. 
Rua  da  Ouvidor,  ro'-ada  6-ve-dor'. 


S. 


Salonio,  sa-lo'-ne-6. 

San  Ignacio,  san  eg-na'-se-o. 

San  Juan,  san  ho'-an. 

San  Luis,  san  lo-is'. 

San  Miguel,  san  me"-gel'. 

Santa  Catarina,san'-ta  ca-ta-re'-na. 

Santa  Cruz,  san'-ta  krb'th. 

Santa  F6,  san'-ta  fa. 

Santa  Lucia,  san'-ta  lo-se'a. 

Santa  Maria,  san'-ta  ma-re'-a. 

Santander,  san-tan-dar'. 

Santarem,  san-ta-ram'. 

Santiago,  san-te-a'-go". 

Sao  Paulo,  san  pou'-lo. 

Sarmiento,  sar-me-en'-to. 

Scala,  ska'-la. 

Senor,  san'-y6r. 

Senorita,  san-yo-re'-ta. 

Serpa,  sSr'-pa. 

Seville,  se-vil'. 

Sinero,  se-na'-ro. 

Soldado,  sol-da'-do. 

Solis,  so'-les. 


340 


VOCABULARY. 


Sorata,  so-ra'-ta. 
Sucre",  so-kra/. 
Sumapaz,  so-ma-pafh'. 

T. 

Tabatinga,  ta-ba-teiig'-ga. 
Tacarigua,  ta-ka-re'-gwa. 
Tacna,  tak'-na. 
Talcalmano,  tal-ka-wa'-n5. 
Tarqui,  tar-ke'. 
Tequendama,  ta-kan' -da-ma. 
Tierra    del    Fuego,    te-ar'-ra    del 

fwa'-go. 
Tiete,  te-a-ta/. 
Tipuani,  te-po-a'-ne. 
Titicaca,  te-te-ka'-ka. 
Tolima,  to-le'-ma. 
Tomas  Frias,  torn -as'  fre'-as. 
Tomas  Rada,  tom-as'  ra'-da. 
Tome,  to-ma'. 
Toni,  to-ne'. 

Tovar  y  Tovar,  to-va'r'  e  to-var'. 
Tribunales,  tre-bo-na'-las. 
Truxillo,  tro-hel'-yo. 
Tucuma,  to-ko-ma'. 
Tucuman,  to-ko-man'. 
Tuileries,  twe'-le-riz. 
Tunguragua,  ton-go-ra'-gwa. 
Tuy,  to-e'. 

U. 

Urquiza,  6r-ke'-tha. 
Uruguay,  b'-ro-gwi'. 


V. 

Valdivia,  val-de'-v6-a. 
Valerde,  va-ler'-de. 


Valle,  val-ya'. 

Valparaiso,  val-pa-rl'-so. 

vanadium,  van-a'-di-um. 

Venezuela,  ven-e-zwe'-la. 

Veragua,  va-ra'-gwa. 

Vespucius,  ves-po'-she-us. 

vicuna,  ve-con'-ya. 

Vidal,  ve-dal'. 

Vilcanota,  vel-ka-no'-ta. 

Villa  Encarnacion,  vel-ya  en-kar- 

na-se-on'. 

Villa  Rica,  vel'-ya  re'-ka. 
Villamil,  vel-ya-mel'. 
Vivanco,  ve-van'-ko. 

W. 

Whymper,  hwim'-per. 


Y. 

Yaros,  ya-ros'. 
Yegros,  ya-gros'. 
yerbales,  yar-ba-les'. 
yerba  mate,  yar'-ba  ma'-te. 
Yriondo,  e-re-on'-do. 
Yucay,  yo-ki'. 

Yurimaguas,  yo-re-ma'-gwas. 
Yuruari,  yo-ro-a'-re. 


Z. 

Zea,  tha'-a. 
Zeballos,  tha-bal'-yos. 
Zephyr,  zef'-er. 
Zulia,  zo-le'-a. 


TRANSLATIONS. 


Alameda  (a-la-me'-da),  a  public  walk. 

alcalde  (al-kal'-da),  mayor  of  a  city. 

alcazar  (al-kath'-ar),  a  castle,  or  fortress. 

T)ola  (bo'-la),  a  ball. 

bombilla  (bom-bil'ya),  a  tube  used  for  drinking  tea. 

calichera  (kal-e'-cha-ra).  a  composite  mineral  deposit. 

chacra  (cha'-kra),  an  Indian  plantation. 

cholo  (ch5'-lo),  an  Indian  half-breed. 

estancia  (es-tan'-the-a) ,  a  grazing  farm. 

hacienda  (ath-e-en'-da),  a  farm  or  homestead. 

junta  (hon'-ta),  an  assembly. 

llanero  (Iya'-n6-r6),  a  herdsman. 

llano  (lya'-n<5),  a  plain,  or  level  field. 

lucerne  (16-sern'),  a  kind  of  clover. 

maceta  (math-a'-ta),  a  wooden  hammer  or  mallet. 

mestizo  (mas-te'-fh5),  a  half-breed. 

mita  (me'-ta),  a  law  governing  Indian  labor. 

pampa  (pam'-pa),  an  extended  plain. 

pampero  (pam-pa'-r5),  a  storm-wind. 

patio  (pa'-te-O),  an  open  court-yard. 

peon  (pa-on'),  a  day  laborer. 

plaza  (pla'-tha),  a  public  square,  or  park. 

poncho  (pon'-cho),  a  garment,  a  native  cloak. 

quartillo  (kwar-tel'-yo),  a  small  coin. 

selva  (sel'-va) ,  a  forest. 

sole  (so'-le),  a  small  coin,  value  3  cents. 

trilla  (trel-ya),  a  threshing  machine. 


341 


INDEX. 


Aceval,  President,  276. 
Agouti,  the,  220. 
Alligators,  40,  207. 
Amazon  River,  20,  200. 

voyage  on,  211. 
Americas  Vespucius,  13,  174. 
Andes  Mountains,  17. 
Ants,  42,  43. 

Apurimac  River  and  bridge,  150. 
Araucaniau  Indians,  302,  304. 
Arequipa,  134. 
Argentine  Republic,  221. 

area,  231. 

boundaries,  232. 

dwelling  houses,  250. 

exports,  238. 

farms  and  farmers,  270. 

financial  crisis,  230. 

industries,  266,  267. 

insect  life,  254. 

railroads,  221),  235-238. 

schools,  230. 

social  and  domestic  life,  248. 

universities,  235. 

war  with  Brazil,  227. 
Artigas,  General.  L'iil. 
Asuncion,  274,  280,  281. 

Bahia,  174,  194,  1!C,. 
Balboa,  15. 
i;aliu;ic(M|;i,  306,  309. 
ISamlxK),  53. 

"  Banda  Oriental,"  the,  287,  288. 
Belgrano,  General,  224. 
Benalcazar,  32,  33. 
Bio-Bio  River,  303. 
Bogota,  34,  44,  46. 
Bolivar,  Simon,  28,  35,  36,  62,  66, 
city  of,  72. 


(iS. 


Bolivia,  154. 

area,  160. 

coffee,  167. 

farm  products,  165. 

general  divisions,  161. 

gold  mining,  157,  169. 

history,  155. 

Indians,  155. 

mountains,  162. 

population,  161. 

precious  stones,  173. 

railroads,  162. 

silver  and  copper,  172. 

social  customs,  168. 

sugar  and  tobacco,  167. 

war  of  independence,  158. 

war  with  Chile,  160. 
Brazil,  17.'.. 

area,  182. 

climate,  182. 

coal  deposits,  184. 

coffee,  186. 

costumes,  191). 

cotton,  188. 

diamond  mines,  195. 

Dom  Pedro  L,  178. 

Dora  Pedro  II.,  179. 

Dutch  war  in,  178. 

fauna  and  flora,  183. 

feudal  grants,  176. 

general  divisions,  182. 

herdsmen,  213. 

history,  173. 

Indians,  205,  220. 

monkeys,  220. 

population,  182. 

precious  stones,  185 

railroads,  185. 

woods,  175,  188. 


343 


344 


INDEX. 


British  Guiana,  327. 

capital,  328. 

climate,  329. 

gold  industry,  330. 

products,  329. 
Buenos  Aires,  city  of,  221,  239. 

cathedral,  241. 

harbor,  239. 

industries,  268. 

newspapers,  235. 

parks,  244. 

plaza,  241. 

population,  221. 

province  of,  255,  258. 

public  buildings,  240. 

residences,  242. 

seized  by  British,  222. 

street  railways,  245. 

Cabadello,  196. 
Cabot,  John,  12. 

Sebastian,  287. 
Cacao,  90,  91. 
Callao,  129,  130. 
Canary  Islands,  11. 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  14. 
Carabobo,  battle  of,  66. 
Caracas,  28,  59,  63,  64,  66. 
Carib,  fish,  75. 
Carnahuba  tree,  189. 
Catamarca,  province  of,  262. 
Cauca  valley,  37. 
Cayenne,  331. 
Celmau,  President,  230. 
Chacabuco,  battle  of,  226. 
Chaco,  the,  277,  278. 
Chibchas,  the,  32. 
Chile,  301. 

agricultural  products,  315. 

animals,  325. 

area,  301. 

climate,  301. 

history,  301. 

horses  and  cattle,  316. 

Indian  races,  302. 

islands,  326. 

minerals,  313. 

nitrate  beds,  313. 

patriotism,  318. 


Chile  (continued). 

provinces,  313. 

railroads,  312. 

rivers,  326. 

schools,  318. 

sheep  farming,  317. 

treaty  with  Peru,  304. 

trouble  with  United  States,  309. 

women  of,  321. 

Climate  of  South  America,  24. 
Coal  beds,  48. 
Coati,  island  of,  149. 
Coffee,  51,  63,  88,  186. 
Colombia,  31. 

area,  31. 

fauna,  55. 

flag,  44. 

flora,  52. 

population,  46. 
Columbus,  1,  3,  12. 
Concepcion,  324. 
Cordoba,  city  of,  235. 

province  of,  258. 
Coro,  58. 
Corrientes,  city  of,  263. 

province  of,  262. 
Cortereal,  12. 
Cotopaxi,  17,  114. 
Cotton,  118. 

trees,  53. 
Cow  tree,  79. 
Cuba,  11. 
Cubagua,  57. 
Cumana,  58. 

Demarkation,  line  of,  14,  174. 
Dom  Pedro  I.,  30,  178. 
Dom  Pedro  II.,  30,  179. 
Dutch  Guiana,  330. 

forests,  331. 

idol  worship,  331. 

natives,  331. 

Earthquakes,  64,  265. 
Eastern  Paraguay,  280. 
Eastern  Peru,   145. 

Indians  of,  146. 

rubber  gatherers  of,  146. 
Ecuador,  94. 


INDEX. 


345 


Ecuador  (continued). 

boundaries,  95. 

forests,  115. 

fruits,  116. 

independence,  98. 

Indians,  95,  107. 

manufactures,  108. 

name,  94. 

native  races,  107. 

natural  beauties,  110. 

population,  95. 

schools,  108. 

volcanoes,  114. 
Egan,  Patrick,  309. 
El  Dorado,  33. 
Electric  eels,  73. 
Eutre  Rios,  province  of,  202. 

Falkland  Islands,  334. 
Federmann,  32. 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  7. 
Feudal  grants,  17*!. 
Flores,  General,  98,  292. 
French  Guiana,  331. 
Frias,  Tomas,  159. 

Gama,  Vasco  da,  12. 
Gauchos,  211,  215,  238. 
Genoa,  4. 

Goodyear,  Charles,  211. 
Guacharo  Cave,  80. 
Guano  Islands,  135. 
Guarani  Indians,  282. 
Guayaquil,  1  <>."». 

climate,  100. 

streets  and  churches,  107. 

Haiti,  11. 

I/III-JIIT'S  M<if/n'.;ne  quoted,  82. 
Henry  the  Navigator,  0. 
Hispaniola,  11. 
Humboldt  quoted,  79. 
Humming-birds,  55. 

Iguana,  the,  218. 
1.,,-as,  the,  139,  149. 
Indians,  Peruvian,  212. 
Insect  life,  L'.VJ. 
Insect  pests,  41. 


Iquitos,  city  of,  148. 
Isabella,  Ferdinand  and,  7. 

Jaguar,  the,  79,  215. 
Jews,  in  Brazil,  176. 
Joam  VI.,  30. 

Juan  Fernandez  Island,  327. 
Jujuy,  259. 

city,  259. 

minerals,  259. 

province,  232,  259. 

Kingsley,  Charles,  quoted,  71. 

Lafayette,  27. 

La  Guayra,  71. 

Lake  Titicaca,  22,  128,  164. 

La  Paz,  163. 

La  Plata,  city  of,  245. 

description,  246-247. 

growth,  246. 

port,  247. 

public  buildings,  247. 

River,  20,  221,  256. 
La  Rabida,  convent  of,  1,  9. 
La  Rioja,  262. 
La  Victoria,  72. 
Larecaja,  15)5. 
Las  Casas,  32. 
Lima,  city  of,  125,  137. 

bread  sellers,  140. 

cathedral,  142. 

libraries,  142. 

milk  women,  141. 

public  gardens,  144. 

schools,  144. 

Line  of  demarkation,  14,  174. 
Llabaya,  155. 
Llamas,  102,  131,  107. 
Llaneros,  77. 
Lopez,  General,  228. 
Losada,  59. 

Macuto,  71. 

Magdsilena  River,  32,  45,  50. 

Magellan,  Ferdinand,  15,  287. 

Magellan,  Straits  of,  332. 

Maiquetia,  71. 

Manaos,  204. 


346 


INDEX. 


Maracaibo,  city  of,  22,  72. 

lake  of,  76. 

Marajo,  island  of,  203. 
Marco  Polo,  3. 
Matto  Grosso,  199. 
Medellin,  city  of,  40. 
Meiggs,  Henry,  129. 
Mendoza,  city  of,  220,  265. 

Pedro  de,  321. 

province  of,  265. 
Mestizos,  the,  37. 
Miranda,  General,  27,  28,  60. 
Mitre,  General,  228. 
Monkeys,  220. 
Montevideo,  city  of,  289. 

captured,  225*  290. 

description,  294. 

fortress,  224. 

name,  294. 

population,  294. 
Morales,  General,  159. 
Moreno,  President,  100. 

Napoleon,  30,  223. 
New  Cadiz,  57. 
New  Granada,  34,  36,  60. 
Nitrate  beds,  314. 
Nitrate  railways,  312. 

Ocean  post-office,  18. 
O'Higgins,  Bernardo,  305. 
Ojeda,  Alonzo  de,  32. 
Onsa,  the,  216. 
Orchids,  55. 
Orinoco  River,  20,  73. 
Oroya  railroad,  130. 
Ovilenca,  211. 

Palms,  52. 
Palos,  11. 
Pampas,  the,  24. 
Panama,  canal,  49. 

city  of,  50. 

isthmus  of,  48. 
Pandi,  natural  bridge  of,  50. 
Para,  196,  201. 
Paraguay,  climate  of,  277. 

colonies,  284. 


Paraguay  (continued). 

Eastern,  280. 

history,  272. 

independence,  274. 

oranges,  285. 

products,  277. 

railroads,  283. 

River,  276,  283. 

war  with  Brazil,  275. 

Western,  277. 
Parahibo,  196. 
Paramaribo,  330. 
Parana,  city,  262. 

falls,  257. 

River,  256. 
Paranagua,  197. 
Parati,  197. 
Pardo,  Manuel,  123. 
Paso  del  Molino,  297. 

roses  at,  298. 
Pastusos.  the,  37. 
Patagonia,  233. 

Indians  of,  234. 
Patio,  the,  251. 
Peccary,  the,  218. 
Perez,  Juan,  196. 
Pernambuco,  196. 
Peru,  discovery  of,  117. 

Eastern,  145. 

Indians,  121,  212. 

mineral  wealth,  127. 

population,  118. 

schools,  152. 

suspension  bridges,  133. 

university,  144. 

war  with  Chile,  124. 
Peruvian  bark,  117. 
Pichincha,  battle  of,  97. 
Pinzon,  Martin,  9,  173. 
Pitch  Lake,  333. 
Pizarro,  32,  119. 
Plains,  the  great,  22. 
Polo,  Marco,  3. 
Porto  Alegre,  197. 
Post-office,  an  ocean,  18. 
Puerto  Cabello,  62,  71. 
Puma,  the,  217. 
Puna,  the,  148. 
Puno,  city  of,  150. 


INDEX. 


347 


Quesada,  General,  32. 
Quito,  city  of,  101. 

description,  112. 

improvements,  103. 

population,  103. 

water  carriers,  104. 

Rainless  desert,  the,  315. 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  198. 
Rio  de  Janeiro,   botanical  gardens, 
191. 

city,  191. 

churches,  193. 

exports,  194. 

parks,  191. 

shipbuilding,  194. 

streets,  191. 
Roca,  General,  229. 
Romaiia,  Eduardo,  127. 
Rosario,  264. 
Rosas,  Juan,  227. 

Rubber  industry,  146,  107,  203,  208, 
209. 

Salta,  province  of,  259. 

"Sambos,"  the,  39. 

San  Juan,  '_'<!.'!. 

San  Luis,  2(54. 

San  Martin,  General,  120,  226,  255. 

San  Salvador,  11. 

Santa  Fe',  city  of,  2<>4. 

province  of,  234,  2<>4. 
Santa  Marta,  45. 
Santa  Rosa,  143. 
Santiago  de  Chile,  303. 
Santiago  del  Estero,  2(X). 
Sao  Paulo,  199. 
Sarmiento,  President,  228. 
Sea  of  Darkness,  the,  10. 
Seasons,  tin-.  H. 
Selvas,  the,  23. 
Shirt,  a  curious,  206. 
Soils,  Juan  de,  28(5. 
South  America,  climate  of,  24. 

countries  of,  '_'."». 
Sucre,  city  of,  1(55. 

General,  01,  98,  159. 
Sugar  cane,  03. 
Sugar  making,  92. 


Tapir,  the,  220. 

Tierra  del  Fuego,  15,  18,  233. 

Titicaca,  Lake,  22,  128. 

Tobacco,  51. 

Toscanelli's  map,  6. 

Tovar,  Martin,  66. 

Tree  ferns,  53. 

Trinidad  Island,  332. 

Pitch  Lake  of,  333. 
Tucuma,  city  of,  260. 

province  of,  260. 

University  of  Peru,  144. 
Urquiza,  General,  227. 
Uruguay,  286. 

agricultural  colonies,  298. 

cattle  raising,  288. 

coffee,  293. 

fruits,  293. 

history,  286. 

independence,  292. 

modern  progress,  300. 

ranches,  299. 

rivers,  294. 

sheep  farming,  299. 

slaughter  houses,  299. 

war  with  Brazil,  291. 

Valencia.  0«.». 
Valparaiso,  city  of,  319. 

ladies  of,  321. 

milk  stations,  321. 
Yalvidia,  city  of,  324. 
Valvidia,  General,  303. 
Vasco  da  Gama,  121. 
Vegetable  ivory,  51. 
Venezuela,  boundary  question,  86. 

early  history,  50. 

honesty  of  people,  85. 

immigration  laws.  Sii. 

independence,  63,  68. 

industries,  !>4. 

laundry  work  in,  84. 

mineral  deposits,  94. 

National  Pantheon,  69. 

natives,  81. 

railroads,  69,  72. 

revolution  of  1899,  87. 

servants,  82. 


348 


INDEX. 


Venezuela  (continued). 

sugar  making,  92. 
Vera  Cruz,  174. 
Vespucius,  13,  174. 
Vicuna,  the,  167. 
Volcanoes,  17. 
Vulcanizing  rubber,  211. 


Washington,  George,  27,  29. 

Western  Paraguay,  '277. 

West  India  Company,  177. 

West  Indies,  11. 

Wilmington,  Voyage  of  the,  211. 

Yerba  mate,  271,  285. 


Stepping   Stones    to    Literature* 

A  Unique    Series    of    Eight  School    Readers 
upon    an   entirely  New   Plan,   Brilliantly  Illus- 
trated with  Masterpieces  and  Original  Drawings. 
By  SARAH  LOUISE  ARNOLD,  Supervisor  of  Schools,  Boston,  Mass., 
and  CHARLES  B.  GILBERT,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Newark,  N.  J. 


This  series  marks  a  new  era  in  School  Readers.  It  combines  with  the  necessary 
technique  of  reading,  a  real  course  in  literature.  It  has  the  sincere  literary  atmos- 
phere. The  early  volumes  create  the  beginnings  of  a  literary  judgment.  The 
advanced  volumes  comprehend  the  whole  range  of  the  world's  best  writing.  The 
pupil,  at  the  end  of  the  course,  knows  what  literature  means. 

In  this  achievement  these  Readers  stand  absolutely  alone.  They  justify  the 
following  deliberate  characterizations : 

They  are  the  most  interesting  Readers  ever  published. 

They  surpass  all  other  Readers  in  wise  technique. 

They  are  superlative  in  stimulating  thought  and  creating  taste. 

They  are  unequaled  in  attractiveness  of  illustration. 

They  give  a  better  idea  of  the  world's  great  literature,  and  more  of  it,  than 
can  be  found  anywhere  else  in  the  same  space. 

A  Mark  of  Their  Acceptability. 

In  their  first  year  they  were  adopted  by  Boston,  New  York,  Brooklyn,  Phila- 
delphia, Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Baltimore,  Atlanta;  by  over  a  thousand  smaller  towns ; 
by  hundreds  of  counties ;  and  by  the  State  of  Virginia. 

Patriotism  in    These  Readers. 

The  entire  series  is  peculiarly  rich  in  selections  and  pictures  closely  connected 
with  American  history  and  American  greatness,  well  fitted  to  stimulate  love  of 
country  in  the  pupil.  The  "  Reader  for  Seventh  Grades,"  is  distinctively  and  wholly 
American,  and  its  tales,  poems,  historical  extracts,  and  illustrations  are  alive  with  a 
proud  patriotism.  Send  yor  r>escripti,je  Circular. 

Silver,  Burdett  and  Company,   Publishers, 

New  York.  Boston.  Chicago. 


The  World  and  Its   People* 

A  Series  of   Eight  Geographical  Readers, 

Charmingly  Illustrated,  for    Supplementary 

Work  in    Schools,    and    for    the    Interest 

of    the     Family    at    Home. 

Under  the  Editorial  supervision  of  LARKIN  DUNTON,  LL.D., 
Head  Master  of  Boston  Normal  School. 

BOOK  I.         First  Lessons     -      36  cts-  BOOK  V.        Modern  Europe    -   60  cts. 

BOOK  II.       Glimpses    of  the  BoQK  VI       ^  ^  ^       .      6o  cts 

World      -  36  cts. 

BOOK  III.     Our  Own  Country  50  cts.  BOOK  VII.     Views  in  Africa        72  cts. 

BOOK  IV.      Our     American  BOOK  VIII.  Australia  and    the 

Neighbors      -    60  cts.  Islands  of  the  Sea  68  cts. 

This  series  of  fascinating  books  makes  geography  a  study  of  absorbing  interest. 
The  maps,  the  boundaries,  the  spots  called  cities,  begin  to  be  alive  as  the  pupil 
reads  these  graphic  and  ample  descriptions  of  the  countries  of  the  world,  their 
individual  characteristics,  their  people's  ways.  Behind  the  map  he  sees  a  real 
world,  tangible  and  bright-hued  as  his  own  surroundings. 

This  circling  picture  of  the  world  comes,  not  as  a  task,  but  as  a  wise  direction 
of  the  home  reading,  in  which  all  the  family  are  often  impelled  to  join. 

Of  peculiar  and  timely  interest  just  now  is  Book  VIII.,  which  vividly  describes, 
among  the  "  Islands  of  the  Sea,"  those  new  possessions  over  which  our  gallant 
sailors  and  soldiers  have  raised  the  Stars  and  Stripes. 

Send  for  Specimen  Pages. 


Songs  of  the  Nation* 

A  Superb  Collection  of  the  Most  Representative  American 
Songs,  for  Schools,  Societies,  and  Homes. 

By  COL.  CHARLES  W.  JOHNSON.  10 years  Chief  Clerk  of  U.  S.  Senate. 

In  these  days,  when  the  sentiment  of  country  is  calling  for  a  new  and  fuller 
expression,  this  collection  is  most  timely. 

It  embodies  the  patriotic  songs  most  in  demand  (25  of  them),  together  with 
many  more  songs  for  Anniversaries  and  occasions,  American  folk-songs,  a  group 
of  old  religious  favorites,  the  best  College  songs,  etc. 

Sent  by  mail  on  receipt  of  price — 60  cents. 

Silver,   Burdett  and  Company,   Publishers, 

New  York.  Boston.  Chicago. 


Arithmetic  in  the  Public  Schools 


THE   NORMAL  COURSE  IN   NUMBER. 

By  JOHN  W.  COOK,  President  of  Northern  Illinois  State  Nor- 
mal School,  and  Miss  N.  CROPSEY,  Assistant  Superintendent  City 
Schools,  Indianapolis,  Indiana. 

A  Course  which  has  deserved  its  wide  acceptance.     It  has  been 
characterized  by  a  leading  educator  as  "  Correct   in  theory,  pre- 
cise in  definition,  logical  in  sequence,  and  excellent  in  its  problems." 
The     New     Elementary     Arithmetic.        (With     or     without 
answers.)     For  the  3d,  4th  and  5th  grades  of  school  work. 

3!6pp SOG. 

Preeminently  practical  in  the  concrete  nature  of  its  problems  and  the  exact- 
ness of  their  gradation.  It  happily  combines  the  oral  and  the  written,  and  its 
simplicity  makes  the  first  steps  in  number  a  delight  to  the  pupils. 

Abridged  Elementary  Arithmetic.     For  3d  and  4th  year  work. 

229  pp 38c. 

Identical  with  the  above  save  for  the  omission  of  Fractions,  Compound  Num- 
bers, Percentage,  Interest,  etc. 

The  New  Advanced  Arithmetic.     (With  or  without  answers.) 

405  PP 650. 

The  "  New  Advanced,"  retaining  and  accenting  all  the  superiorities  of  the 
other  edition,  has  added  elementary  process  in  Algebra  and  Geometry  which  bridge 
to  higher  mathematics. 

Answers  to  the  New  Advanced  Arithmetic  (separate)    .    36c. 

Key  to  the  New  Advanced  Arithmetic.     For  Teachers  only. 

First  Steps  in  Arithmetic.     By  ELLA  M.  PIERCE,  Supervisor 

of     Primary   Grades,    Public     Schools,    Providence,    R.   I. 

160  pp 36c. 

For  the  second  school  year.  Accords  closely  with  the  methods  of  the  "  Nor- 
mal Course  in  Number,"  and  is  a  preparation  for  "  The  New  Elementary  Arith- 
metic." In  all  numbers  to  20. 

Easy  Problems  in  the  Principles  of  Arithmetic. 
By  ELIZABETH  T.  MILLS.     168  pp $1.00. 

Furnishes  teachers  with  a  complete  and  carefully  graded  set  of  interesting 
supplementary  problems.  Valuable  for  auxiliary  service. 

Practical  Tests  in  Commercial  and  Higher  Arithmetic. 

By  ERNEST  L.  THURSTON,  C.  E.,  Head  of  Department  of 
Business  Arithmetic  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  Business  High 
School.  68  pp 420. 

Special  preparation  tor  the  daily  demands  of  business  is  the  aim  of  this  valu- 
able little  book  ;  supplementary  to  the  regular  course  in  arithmetic  both  in  public 
and  business  high  schools. 

Our  text-books  cover  all  the  steps  of  education  from  the  Kindergarten  to 
the  University.  Our  Educational  Catalogue  is  mailed  free  upon  application. 


Silver,  Burdett  &  Company 

Boston         .         New  York         .         Chicago 


First  Steps  in  the  History 
of  Our  Country. 

By  WILLIAM  A.  MOWRY  and  ARTHUR  MAY  MOWRY. 


Few  books  are  so  fascinating  and  stirring  to  boys  and  girls,  either 
in  school  or  under  the  evening  lamp  at  home,  as  "  First  Steps  in  the 
History  of  Our  Country." 

The  book  consists  of  the  personal  narratives  of  39  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished Americans,  from  Columbus  to  Edison.  Through  the 
stories  of  these  leading  personages  the  history  of  our  country  is  woven. 
The  personal  narratives  are  told  with  all  the  spirit  and  bright  interest 
of  an  accomplished  story-teller,  and  abound  in  anecdote  and  conver- 
sation, and  are  equally  readable  both  to  children  and  adults. 

When  a  young  person  finishes  this  book,  he  has  gained  a  very  fair 
idea  of  what  AMERICA  stands  for,  and  he  has  also  gained  a  proud 
idea  of  what  it  is  to  be  an  American  citizen. 

It  is  also  a  most  fair  book.  It  gives  both  sides  of  disputed  ques- 
tions. Thus,  it  recognizes  what  Lord  Baltimore  did  for  religious 
toleration  in  Maryland  as  distinctly  as  it  describes  what  Roger 
Williams  did  for  religious  liberty  in  Rhode  Island.  In  its  portrayal 
of  Calhoun,  Clay  and  Lee,  it  gives  to  the  South  as  fair  a  showing  as 
the  North  receives  in  the  stories  of  Webster,  Lincoln  and  Grant. 

The  book  is  up-to-date  in  its  recognition  of  the  Spanish  war, 
which  is  treated  in  the  interesting  narrative  of  the  beautiful  work 
done  by  Clara  Barton  and  the  Red  Cross  Society. 

There  is  not  a  dull  page  in  it.  Though  a  history,  it  reads  more 
like  a  romance.  The  dullest  child  who  once  begins  to  read  this  book 
will  not  want  to  lay  it  down  until  it  is  finished. 

As  a  school  text-book  for  elementary  grades,  or  for  supplementary 
reading,  or  as  a  book  for  a  child's  library,  it  leads  all  others. 

320  Pages.     2ij  Illustrations.     Retail  price,  /jr  cents. 
(For  introductory  price  to  Schools,  send  for  Circular.) 


"  It  starts  out  with  the  idea  that  the  main  thing  that  the  child  needs, 
in  order  to  get  his  interest  aroused  in  detailed  history,  is  to  get  first  of  all 
a  succession  of  powerful  impressions  of  what  the  course  of  American  life 
for  the  last  four  centuries  means.  So  it  is  the  significant  epochs  which 
are  thrown  up,  and  it  is  a  combination  of  biography  and  episodes  that 
gives  the  color  and  connects  the  facts.  Emerson's  saying  that  every 
institution  is  but  the  lengthened  shadow  of  a  man  was  evidently  one  of 
the  inspirations  of  this  delightful  little  book." — The  School  Journal. 


Silver,  Burdett  and  Company,  Publishers, 

Boston.  New  York.  Chicago. 


Historic  Pilgrimages  in 
New  England. 

BY  EDWIN  M.  BACON. 

This  is  the  vivid  story  of  early  New  England,  told 
while  standing  upon  the  very  spots  where  the  stirring 
Colonial  drama  was  enacted.  The  famous  places  where 
the  Puritans  and  Pilgrims  planted  their  first  homes,  the 
ancient  buildings,  and  the  monuments  to  the  wise  and 
dauntless  founders  of  the  great  Commonwealth  are 
visited,  and,  while  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  associations, 
the  thrilling  narrative  of  the  past  is  recounted. 

The  connecting  thread  is  the  summer  pilgrimage  which 
a  thoughtful  young  fellow  from  a  western  college  makes 
to  the  country  of  his  ancestors.  He  is  accompanied  by 
his  father's  friend,  who  talks  entertainingly  about  the 
memorable  facts  which  the  hallowed  soil  suggests. 

The  boy's  earnest  curiosity  stands  for  the  interest 
which  some  millions  of  others  feel  in  the  same  events 
and  personalities  and  shrines. 

Of  all  the  books  which  describe  that  country  and  set 
forth  the  significance  of  the  deeds  done  there, — from  the 
landing  of  the  Pilgrims  to  the  first  blow  of  the  Revolution, 
— this  new  volume  combines,  perhaps,  the  most  that  is 
of  interest  to  lovers  of  Yankee-land.  It  is  accurate.  It 
abounds  in  facts  hitherto  unpublished.  It  gives  snatches 
from  early  diaries  and  documents.  Disputed  stories  are 
sifted  until  the  fabulous  elements  are  cut  out. 

The  style  is  graphic  from  start  to  finish — even  statis- 
tics are  made  picturesque. 

4-75  Pages,     fjf  Illustrations.      Uncut  edges.     Retail  p*  ice,  $1.50. 
(For  introductory  price  of  School  Edition  send  for  Circular.) 

For  School  Libraries  and  Reading  Circles,  this  book  appeals  to  a  deep 
and  constant  taste.  For  Supplementary  Reading  in  the  higher  grades 
it  is  a  mine  of  interest  and  delightful  instructiveness. 

"  '  Historic  Pilgrimages  '  abundantly  justifies  its  double  purppie  of 
serving  both  the  student's  needs  of  a  graphic  summary  of  the  history 
of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  the  stranger-visitor's  need  of  a  preparation 
for,  and  a  pleasant  keepsake  of,  his  journeyings." — Boston  Journal. 


Silver,  Burdett  and  Company,  Publishers, 

Boston.  New  York.  Chicago. 


Songs  of  The  Nation. 

Compiled  by  COL.  CHARLES  W.  JOHNSON. 

This  is  a  book  which  is  worth)'  of  its  title.  No  other 
book  published  meets  so  fully  and  with  such  fitness,  the 
obvious  requirements  of  a  volume  of  songs  which  can 
properly  bear  the  broad  title — "  Songs  of  The  Nation." 

With  the  new  enthusiasm  for  country  and  flag,  which 
the  sweep  of  war  has  intensified,  the  desire  for  patriotic 
songs. has  deepened.  Around  the  piano  at  home,  in 
summer  hotels,  in  societies  and  clubs,  in  students'  rooms, 
and,  most  of  all,  in  schools,  there  is  wanted  an  adequate 
collection  of  general  songs,  broad  and  exalted  in  nature 
and  varied  enough  for  many  occasions. 

Precisely  to  meet  this  need  is  the  aim  of  this  volume. 
It  is  a  superb  collection  which  embodies  the  patriotic 
songs  most  in  demand  (25  of  them),  together  with  many 
more  songs  for  anniversaries  and  occasions  ;  American 
folk-songs,  a  group  of  old  religious  favorites,  the  best 
college  songs,  etc. 

The  distinguished  compiler,  Col.  Charles  W.  Johnson, 
who  for  ten  years  was  chief  clerk  of  the  United  States 
Senate,  has  cast  the  book  in  conformity  to  a  lofty  ideal 
and  with  regard  to  the  versatility  of  public  taste. 

The  introductory  chapter  on  music  in  public  schools, 
by  Mr.  Leonard  B.  Marshall,  Superintendent  of  Musical 
Instruction  of  the  Boston  schools,  will  be  of  large  prac- 
tical value  to  all  teachers  of  music. 

The  book  is  of  noble  appearance,  with  large  type  and 
heavy  paper. 

4to,  160  pages.     Retail  price,  75  cents. 
(For  introductory  price  to  Schools  send  for  special  circular.) 

"Above  all  the  swarm  of  small  and  unsatisfactory  collections  of 
patriotic  songs  '  The  Songs  of  The  Nation '  stands  as  the  highest  in 
degree,  the  widest  in  scope,  and  the  most  attractive  in  appearance.  It  is  a 
school  and  college  song  book  no  less  than  a  handy  book  for  every  home 
piano." —  The  Illustrated  A  merican. 


Silver,  Burdett  and  Company,  Publishers, 

Boston.  New  York.  Chicago. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


APR    21  1936 

SEP    28  1944 

APR  27  1 

/  Ul^ 

j.  „«     «cr  fn  r 

FE8    4    1933 

^S  W? 

J3Apf53Ff 

jUL  IS  1940 

i 

6  f(fffS»  c  (^ 

.      ..    ,,<! 

"  wowc 

"^            -JLg 

I? 

rrDi  JDDAf>V  1  A/IM 

APR  13  1941 

NOV  17  1941 

- 

UN 

V-  OF  CAIIF..  BFi?« 

NOV  J3  "w> 

n   'CCA 

SB 

S!?_ 

A,IO    oft  1944 

LD21-100m-7,'33 

YB  09059 

U.C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


